tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-20091716288051999382024-03-20T02:58:57.463-07:00NGENVIRONMENTUrban Planners and Planning issuesBolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.comBlogger21125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-45909749200652085862016-10-24T00:08:00.000-07:002016-10-24T01:57:32.038-07:00Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Decree No 88 Of 1992<h2>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">
Summary of the Nigeria Urban and Regional Planing (NURP) Decree NO 88 of 1992.</span></h2>
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<h3>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Introduction.</span></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0cs_VFJvfFjlvyx3bfP4ynkvHsIm4sIpq9bd7rXf2HfQYQUUy5Jab6c0BXCjSDCRjagcoVOLyIO-zPfbDODKhJ_xzMkzZAsA6GeZyA9-Wp5uEXieOszODKezyEkBaIRwBvYWzlOLWzsyh/s1600/nigeria+urp.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="urban and regional planning law" border="0" height="172" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0cs_VFJvfFjlvyx3bfP4ynkvHsIm4sIpq9bd7rXf2HfQYQUUy5Jab6c0BXCjSDCRjagcoVOLyIO-zPfbDODKhJ_xzMkzZAsA6GeZyA9-Wp5uEXieOszODKezyEkBaIRwBvYWzlOLWzsyh/s200/nigeria+urp.jpg" width="200" /></a></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Prior to the enactment of the Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Decree of 1992 in the country, there have been several ordinances and laws put in place either by the colonial administrators or the Nigerian government, which in one way or the other had facilitated the growth of Town and Country planning as well as its scope. These ordinances and laws include but not limited to: the 1863 Town Improvement Ordinance, 1904 Cantonment Proclamation, 1917 Township Ordinance, 1928 Lagos Town Planning Ordinance, 1946 Town and Country Ordinance, Western Nigerian Town and Country Planning Law Cap 130 of 1959, Northern Nigerian Town and Country Planning Law Cap 130 of 1963, Eastern Nigerian Town and Country Planning Law Cap 126 of 1963, Town and Country Planning of Bendel state of 1976, Kwara state Town Planning and Development Authority Edict of 1984, Ogun state Town and Country Planning Law Cap 127 of 1978, etc.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Although, 1946 Town and Country Ordinance (modeled after 1932 British Town and Country Planning Law) was enacted for the whole Nigeria by the British government, it is pertinent to say here that the three regional based Town and Country Planning Laws (the Western Nigerian Town and Country Planning Law Cap 130 of 1959, the Northern Nigerian Town and Country Planning Law Cap 130 of 1963 and the Eastern Nigerian Town and Country Planning Law Cap 126 of 1963), took their sources from the 1946 Town and Country Ordinance. Subsequent Town and Country Planning Laws in Nigeria states took their sources from these regional based Laws. For example, Town and Country Planning Law of Bendel state of 1976, the Town and Country Planning Law of Ogun state of 1978, the Town and Country Planning Law of Ondo state 1978, all took their sources from the Western Nigerian Town and Country Planning Law Cap 130 of 1959.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">The Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Decree of 1992 was enacted to form a basis of common and uniform practice for the nation and to coordinate standard development control in the country. It was promulgated by the federal military government on 15<sup>th</sup> of December, 1992</span>.</span></div>
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</style> <![endif]--><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">The General and Specific Objectives of the Nigeria Urban and Regional Planning Decree of 1992.</span></span></h3>
<br />
<h4>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">
General Objective</span></h4>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="line-height: 115%;">To facilitate the preparation and
implementation of development plans and planning schemes, with a view of
creating a better environment for living, working and recreation.</span></span></span></div>
</div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Specific Objectives</span></span></h4>
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<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;">The specific objectives are summarized as follows: </span></span></div>
<ul><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
</span></span>
<li><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;">To identify type and level of physical development plans, plan preparation procedures and responsibilities of the administrative bodies concern (PLAN PREPARATION AND IMPLEMENTATION).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;"> </span></span></li>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
</span></span>
<li><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;">To give more seriousness to development control (DEVELOPMENT CONTROL).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;"> </span></span></li>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
</span></span>
<li><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;">To ensure effective control in special cases like wasteland, tree preservation, building of special architectural and historical significance and advertisement (ADDITIONAL CONTROL IN SPECIAL CASES).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;"> </span></span></li>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
</span></span>
<li><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;">To empower the planning authority in acquisition of land for planning purpose and payment of compensation and betterment (LAND ACQUISITION AND COMPENSATION).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;"> </span></span></li>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
</span></span>
<li><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;">To ensure that areas that need improvement are attended to by the planning authority in conjunction with residents in the areas (IMPROVEMENT AREAS: REHABILITATION, RENEWAL, UPGRADING).</span><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span></li>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
</span></span>
<li><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">To ensure fair-hearing and justice to everybody as far as planning is concern through the establishment of Urban and Regional Planning Tribunal in each state and the Federal Capital Territory.</span></span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Parts of the Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Decree NO 88 of 1992.</span></span></h3>
<br />
<h4>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Part I: Plan Preparation and Administration.</span></span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;">The decree provides the types of development plans to be prepared and implemented at the federal, state and local levels. At the federal level, the types of physical development plans include: National physical development plan, regional plan, sub regional plan, urban plan and subject plan. At the state level: regional plan, sub-regional plan, urban plan, local plan and subject plan. While at the local level: town plan, rural plan, local plan, and subject plan (Section 1).</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;">Section (2-4) states the responsibilities of the federal, state and the local government with respect to preparation of physical development plan and administration (ADMINISTRATION). Section 5 – 12 further establishes certain bodies, their composition and their functions in plan preparation and implementation. These bodies are the National Urban and Regional Planning Commission (the Commission), the State Urban and Regional Planning Board (the Board), the Local Planning Authority (the Authority) for the federal, state and local government respectively.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;">The need for public participation in plan preparation cannot be over-emphasized. Therefore, Section 13-26 (Procedure) provides that interested member of the public and non-governmental organizations should participate in the planning preparation. Their suggestions, objections and comments should be considered in preparing the “draft National Physical Development Plan” after which it would be scrutinized and approved by appropriate legislative body to produce the “Operative National Development Plan”.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span></span></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-size: large;">Part II: Development Control.</span></span></span></h4>
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<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;">Development control is the process of ensuring that the development carried out by a developer is in compliance with the physical development plan proposals in other to achieve better environment for living, working and recreation.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;">Section 27 provides that the Commission, Board and Authority are to set up Development Control Departments (DCD) which would be responsible for the control of developments in their jurisdiction. According to section 28-30, the development plans of a developer either private or government agencies should be drawn by a registered Architect, Town planner and Engineer. Also, no development can take place without planning approval from DCD. The DCD must provide the reasons of rejection of any development plan to the developer or applicant of a development permit. The decree provides that the DCD request for the submission of detailed Environmental Impact Assessment <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2016/10/categories-of-development-plan.html" target="_blank">for some categories of development plan application</a> (Section 33).</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;">A development permit issued to a developer is only valid for 2 years from the communication of the approval. Hence, where a developer fails to commence development within 2 years, the development permit shall be subjected to re-validation by the DCD (Section 35). However, the decree provides for fair-hearing and justice for unsatisfied developer whose development permit was altered, amended, varied or revoked to appeal to Planning Tribunal within 28 days. Conditions involved in <b><a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2016/10/revocation-of-rights-of-occupancy-for.html" target="_blank">revoking development permit involve matters of </a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2009171628805199938" target="_blank">overriding public interest</a></b> as provided for in Section 28(2-3) of the <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2012/11/summary-of-land-use-act-decree-no-6-of.html" target="_blank"><b>Land Use Act of 1978.</b></a> Sections 42-46 provide the <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2016/10/conditions-for-payment-and-non-payment.html" target="_blank">conditions when compensation is payable and non-payable</a><span style="color: red;"> </span>to a developer whose development permits is revoked.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;">Sections 47-63 contain the enforcement subtopic. The decree provides that the DCD may serve <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">“enforcement notice”</b> to the owner of a residential land, commercial land, etc, to alter, vary, remove or discontinue a development wherever the development commenced without the approval of the DCD even if the development took place before the commencement of the decree (Section 47-48). This is to ensure that development becomes lawful and compatible with the adjoin land use (Section 50). Therefore, the DCD shall enforce Planning Tribunal or High Court order against developer who fail to comply with the enforcement notice (Section 51). <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">“A stop work”</b> order shall be served to a developer, occupier or holder for the time being of a development permit if the development does not comply with the development permit issued by the DCD. This is followed by an enforcement notice ordering the developer to alter, vary, remove or discontinue the development within 21 days (Section 53-56). Also, DCD shall serve demolition notice to a developer if his development poses threat or constitutes nuisance to the occupiers and the public. This should be served 21 days before demolition (Section 61).</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-size: large;">Part III: Additional Control in Special Cases.</span></span></span></span></h4>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;">Under this are sections 64-74 and it deals with such issues as exercising control on outdoor advertisement, wasteland, tree (afforestation) and buildings of special, architectural or historical interest. The decree empowers the DCD to compile a list of buildings of architectural and historical interest with regards to certain conditions, after which the compiled list is published in the Gazette (Section 64-70). It becomes therefore an offense for anybody to alter, demolish, and extend the published buildings (Section 71). The DCD are empowered to make preservation and planting of trees (Section 72). They are also to control outdoor advertisements by regulating the size, dimensions, appearance, display, etc. Also no persons should display or site advertisement on land without the consent of the DCD (Section 73).</span></span><br />
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<h4>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: large;">Part IV: Acquisition of Land and Compensation</span></span></h4>
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<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">This part is contained in Section 75 to 78. It deals with such matters as power to revoke acquired occupancy, compensation to the owner of right occupancy in accordance with provision of Land Use Act of 1978, recovery of betterment from owners of land or property.</span></span></span></div>
<h4>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"> </span></span></span></h4>
<h4>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">What is compensation?</span></span></span></h4>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Compensation is the amount payable to a developer and occupancy of land whose acquired occu<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">pancy rights has been revoked</span> in accordance to implementation of any development plan and due to <b><a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2016/10/revocation-of-rights-of-occupancy-for.html" target="_blank">matters of overriding public interest</a></b> (NURP Decree 1992, Section 75; <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2012/11/summary-of-land-use-act-decree-no-6-of.html" target="_blank">Land Use Act of 1978</a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">).</span></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;"> </span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-themecolor: text1;">According Section 76(3) Compensation may not be paid to any person who contravenes existing scheme and person may forfeit land and any building and cultural artifacts attached to it for breach of scheme.</span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;"> </span></span> <br />
<h4>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-themecolor: text1;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">What is Betterment?</span> </span></div>
</span></span></h4>
</div>
<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small; line-height: 115%;">Betterment is the amount of money recovered from owners of land and property that increase in value due to the facilitation and execution of work under a physical development plan. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small; line-height: 115%;">According to the Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Decree, the DCD is empowered to recover betterment within 3 years after completion of the development. Money recovered would be used to pay compensation (Section 78(1- 4)). </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><br />
<h4>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2016/10/revocation-of-rights-of-occupancy-for.html" target="_blank">What is Overriding Public interest?</a> </span></span></h4>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span></span></span><br />
<h4>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Part V: Improvement Areas- Rehabilitation, Renewal and Upgrading.</span></span></span></span></h4>
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</span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">This is covered in Section 79-85. The planning
authority is empowered to declare an area an improvement area. Hence, it is to
produce and published local plan in the Gazette to facilitate the
rehabilitation, renewal and upgrading of physical environment and
infrastructure of the area to create better environment for living working and
recreation. However, this is not complete or the plan would not be effective if
there is no consultation of residents, relevant statutory authorities for their
cooperation and participation (Section 79-81).</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
</span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">The authority has the power to grant, guarantee or
facilitate granting of loans to person or groups to improve, repair or renovate
housing and community facilities within the area; demolish buildings or part
thereof and recover the cost of the demolition from the owner; repair and
recover the cost of repair and pay compensation where necessary (Section 82).</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
</span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">If an aggrieved owner is displeased with the
demolition order served to him by the Authority can appeal to the planning
Tribunal or High Court of the state or FCT as the case may be, at least 28 days
after service of the order.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
</span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">There must be provisions in form of assistance by the
authority to the occupier of a land before making an order or executing an
order for demolition of building (Section 85). </span></span><br />
</div>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
</span></span><br />
<h3 class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Part VI: Appeals.</span></b></span></span></h3>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
</span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">This part talks about the establishment of the urban
and regional planning tribunal, composition of the tribunals, tenure of office
of the members of the tribunal and rules of procedure to be adopted by the
tribunal (Section 86-90).<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>For the purpose of ensuring fair hearing and justice
to the member of the public and authorities, the decree provides for the
establishment of Urban and Regional Planning Tribunal also known as the
“Tribunal” in each states and FCT, Abuja. The tribunal shall consist of a
chairman (a registered Town Planner with 15 years post qualification
experience), an Architect, a legal practitioner knowledgeable in planning law,
an Engineer and a Land Surveyor. These professionals shall be appointed by the
Minister or Governor as the case may be with recommendations from the
professional bodies concerned.</span></span><br />
</div>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
</span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: large;">References</span></span></h3>
<br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: small;">L.A. Adeyeye (2010), Understanding Urban and Regional Planning Law and Administration in Nigeria </span></span><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"> </span></span></span></h3>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span>Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com21tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-37186897515401591322016-10-19T16:58:00.000-07:002016-10-24T00:01:53.603-07:00Revocation of Rights of Occupancy for Overriding Public Interest<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-weight: normal;">
<b>What is Revocation of Rights of Occupancy for Overriding Public Interest?</b></span></h2>
<div style="text-align: left;">
According to the provision of the
Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Decree of 1992, Section 75(1) states that:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<i>“where it
appears to the Commission, the Board or the Authority that it is necessary to
obtain any land in connection with planned urban or rural development in
accordance with the policies and proposals of any approved plan, any right of
occupancy subsisting on that land shall be revoked on the recommendation of the
appropriate authority”.</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
These rights of occupancy shall
be revoked in accordance with the relevant provision of the <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2012/11/summary-of-land-use-act-decree-no-6-of.html" target="_blank">Land Use Act</a>
(Section 75(2)). The revocation of the rights of occupancy by the Governor for
overriding public interest is categorically stated in Section 28(1) of the Land
Use Act of 1978:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<i>“It shall be
lawful for the Military Governor to revoke a right of occupancy for <b>overriding
public interest</b>”.</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2012/11/summary-of-land-use-act-decree-no-6-of.html" target="_blank"><br /></a></div>
<a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2012/11/summary-of-land-use-act-decree-no-6-of.html" target="_blank">
</a>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2012/11/summary-of-land-use-act-decree-no-6-of.html" target="_blank">The Land Use Act</a> never set out to
abolish all existing title and rights to possession of land (Section 34). It
vested the land in the Governor who holds it in trust and administered for the
use and common benefits of the general public (Section 1). This in long way as
made it easy for the government to acquire land for public purpose and also it
has made the issue of compensation easier.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Before going further, it is
pertinent to say here that there are two types of rights of occupancy as
provided by the Section 5 and 6 of the <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2012/11/summary-of-land-use-act-decree-no-6-of.html" target="_blank">Land Use Act</a> and each stand as a case
for overriding public interest. These are statutory right of occupancy and
customary rights of occupancy.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Statutory right occupancy is
granted by the Governor in respect of land, whether in rural or urban area, to
any person for all purposes (Section 5(1a) of Land Use Act), while, customary
rights of occupancy is granted by the local government in respect of land not
in urban area (rural area) to any person or organization for the use of land in
local government area for agricultural, residential, grazing and other purposes
(Section 6(1a, b)).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Revocation
of statutory rights of occupancy for <b>overriding public interest</b> means:<br />
<ul>
<li>The alienation by the occupier by assignment,
mortgage, transfer of possession, sublease, or otherwise of any right of
occupancy or part thereof contrary to the provisions of this Decree or of any
regulations made under;</li>
<li>The requirement of the land by the Government of
the state or by Local Government in the state, in either case for public purposes<span style="color: red;"> </span>within the State, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>or the requirement of the land by the
Government of the Federation for public purposes of the Federation;</li>
<li>The requirement of the land for mining purposes
or oil pipelines or for any purpose connected therewith.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Revocation of customary rights of
occupancy for <b>overriding public interest</b> means:<br />
<ul>
<li>The requirement of the land by the Government of
the state or by a Local Government in the State, in either case for public purposes<span style="color: red;"> </span>within the State, or the
requirement of the land by the Government of the Federation for public purposes
of the Federation;</li>
<li>The requirements of the land for mining purposes
or oil pipelines or for any purpose connected therewith;</li>
<li>The requirement of the land for the extraction
of building materials;</li>
<li>The alienation by the occupier by sale,
assignment, mortgage, transfer of possession, sublease, bequest or otherwise of
the right of occupancy without the requisite consent or approval.</li>
</ul>
<a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2016/10/public-purposes-for-which-government.html" target="_blank">This begs the question "What are the public purposes for which the state or local government may revoke rights of occupancy?"</a><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">References</span></h3>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">L.A. Adeyeye (2010), Understanding Urban and Regional Planning Law and Administration in Nigeria</span> <br />
<ul>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-74841042171594345622016-10-15T07:32:00.002-07:002016-10-24T00:29:23.890-07:00Public Purposes for which the Government could Acquire Land<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<![endif]-->Public Purposes for which the Government could Acquire Land in Nigeria</h2>
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According to the interpretation
Section of the <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2016/10/nigerian-urban-and-regional-planning.html" target="_blank">Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Decree NO 88 of 1992</a>, public
purposes for which the government of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Nigeria could acquire land include:</div>
<ul>
<li>For exclusive Government use or
for general public use;</li>
<li>For use by anybody corporate
directly established by law or by law or by anybody corporate registered under
the Companies Decree 1968 as respects;</li>
<li>For or in connection with
sanitary improvements of any kind;</li>
<li>For obtaining control over land
contiguous to any part or over land the value of which will be enhanced by the
construction of any railway, road or other public work or convenience about to
be undertaken or provided by the Government;</li>
<li>For obtaining control over land
required for or in connection with development of telecommunication with mining
purposes;</li>
<li>For obtaining control over land
required for or in connection with planned urban and rural development
settlement;</li>
<li>For obtaining control over land
required for or in connection with economic, industrial or agricultural
development;</li>
<li>For educational and other social
services.</li>
</ul>
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<br /></div>
Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-61538072441787443222016-10-15T07:17:00.003-07:002016-10-24T00:34:04.504-07:00Conditions for Payment and Non-payment of Compensation for the Revocation of Development Permit off a Developer<h2>
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According to Section 42 of the
<a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2016/10/nigerian-urban-and-regional-planning.html" target="_blank"><b>Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Decree No 88 of 1992</b></a>, compensation shall be
payable for the revocation of development permit to a developer or the holder
for the time being of a development permit if:<br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>Development has commenced; or</li>
<li>The developer or holder is liable under an
existing contract to a third party to damages for breach of conflict; or</li>
<li>The developer has incurred any expense or has
suffered a loss during the process of obtaining development permit.</li>
</ul>
<br />
The amount of compensation
payable shall be such as to reimburse the developer or holder for the time
being of a development permit of the loss incurred as result of the revocation
and shall not be in the form of payment of damages or in excess of the sum
incurred by the developer.<br />
<br />
According to Section 43(2) no
compensation shall be payable if:<br />
<ul>
<li>A development is not in accordance with the
terms and conditions under which the development permit was granted; or</li>
<li>The right of occupancy of the land on which a
development was to take place has been cancelled or revoked on the ground that
the applicant did not comply with the requirements of the <span style="color: red;"><b><span style="color: black;"><a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2012/11/summary-of-land-use-act-decree-no-6-of.html" target="_blank">Land Use Act of 1978</a></span></b> </span><span style="color: red;">(<a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2016/10/revocation-of-rights-of-occupancy-for.html" target="_blank">check revocation of rights of occupancy for overriding public interest</a>)</span>; or</li>
<li>A claim for compensation is made 28 days after a
notice of revocation is served on the developer or the holder for the time being
of a development permit.</li>
</ul>
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">References</span></h3>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">L.A. Adeyeye (2010), Understanding Urban and Regional Planning Law and Administration in Nigeria</span><br />
<ul>
</ul>
Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-60034639723545135972016-10-12T03:59:00.000-07:002016-10-24T00:39:22.247-07:00Categories of Development Plan Application that Requires Environmental Impact Statement in Nigeria<div style="text-align: left;">
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<h2>
Categories of Development Plan Application that Requires Environmental Impact Statement in Nigeria </h2>
Environment is defined as the sum
total of all conditions that surround man on earth surface. These conditions
are known not only to be physical, but also social, economic, cultural,
aesthetic and/or political dimensions and their various interactions and
interrelationships.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It therefore follows
that any damage done to any of the conditions mentioned that surrounds man will
have adverse impact on man’s quality of life. The main effect of the
development activities of man on land is the alteration of the natural
environment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such developmental
activities may include the location of building uses, mechanized farming,
lumbering, and mining, quarrying, etc. It has been observed that, in many
instances, these developmental activities have been sources of major environmental
problems. Hence, environmental impact of any development on the physical,
social, economic, aesthetic and cultural aspects of the environment and its
location need to be predicted and evaluated and measures to mitigate negative
impacts before the inception of development need to be identified.</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b>Environmental Impact Statement or
Environmental Impact Assessment Report </b>(used interchangeably) can be defined as
the process of predicting and evaluating the various aspects of the
environmental effects, both adverse and beneficial of a proposed development,
the conclusions of which is to be used as a tool in decision making. There are
two types of project effects and these are primary and secondary impact.
Primary impacts of a project are those that can be attributed directly to the
proposed action. These may include impact related to its construction and
operation. Secondary effects are always referred to as the indirect or the
induced changes which may be positive or negative. This may include the
population movement during festivals, break and the associated traffic
situation, pressures likely to be exerted on water, electricity, and solid waste
and noise to be generated among others.</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
The desire to reduce or control
environmental problems has been a major concern in recent times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such concerns are targeted towards ensuring
the sustainability of the environment. Countries all over the world (developed
and developing) have responded to this issue of environmental quality
sustainability in various ways. In Nigeria most importantly, the promulgation
of the decree No 89 that established the Federal Environmental Protection
Agency and the launching of the National Policy on the Environmental in 1989
were steps taken towards achieving this goal. A component of the National
Policy on the Environment is that Environmental Impact Assessment Report (EIAR)
which is aimed at predicting and controlling the consequences of a proposed
developmental activity be prepared for certain types and magnitude of
projects.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
Most states in Nigeria had taken
the right step by including the preparation of Environmental Impact Statement in
their planning regulations for some categories of buildings/ development.
However, the categories of development plan application that requires
environmental impact statement in may vary from states to states, and this may
be influence by the degree and magnitude of planning problems in that state.
But notable among the development plan applications that require Environmental
Impact Statement can be seen in Section 33 of the <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2016/10/nigerian-urban-and-regional-planning.html" target="_blank">Nigerian Urban and RegionalPlanning (NURP) Decree No 88 of 1992</a> and Section 38 of the Lagos Urban and
Regional Planning (LURP) Edict No 2 of 1998. <b> </b><br />
<b>The categories of development plan applications that requires environmental impact statement in Nigeria</b> include but not
limited to:</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"></span><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"></span></span></span>Residential land in excess of 2 hectares (NURP);<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"></span></span></li>
<li><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"></span><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Permission to build or expand a factory or for
the construction of an office building in excess of four floors or 5000 square <span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">metres</span> of a lettable spaces (NURP);<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"></span></span></span> </li>
<li>Permission for a major recreational development (NURP);</li>
<li>Office or other commercial building (LURP);</li>
<li><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"></span></span></span>Place of worship (LURP);</li>
<li>Major recreational development covering more
than 2000 square metres (LURP);<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"></span></span></li>
<li><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"></span></span></span>Institutional buildings (LURP);</li>
<li><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"></span></span></span>Petrol filling and service stations. (LURP).</li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-74210172038049760152016-08-01T07:47:00.000-07:002017-02-16T16:40:00.970-08:00How To Acquire Fct/Abuja Land Directly From Federal GovernmentThere are two types of lands in FCT/Abuja which are FCDA land and Area Council land. Area Council lands were being allocated by the chairmen of each area council but the FCT minister is now the one allocating both FCDA and Area Council lands through an agency called AGIS (Abuja Geographic Information System).<br />
<br />
AGIS is responsible for generation, management and administration of geospatial and land related matters in the FCT which include handling of data capture, processing and computerization of land related departments as well as customer services such as billing and revenue collection.<br />
<br />
To acquire any land directly from the government one has to open a new application file in AGIS by taking the following steps<br />
<br />
1. Obtain a new application form from AGIS or download from <a href="http://www.agis.fct.gov.ng/" rel="noopener">www.agis.fct.gov.ng</a><br />
2. Pay 50,000 (for Area Council land) or 100,000 (for FCDA land) to AGIS account at GTBank, FirstBank, Zenith Bank or any other designated bank.<br />
3. Present evidence of payment (teller) to AGIS (finance department) to ontain receipt<br />
4. Open file at New Application Desk with the following documents<br />
A) photocopy of the receipt<br />
B) two passport size photograph<br />
C) means of identification (national I D card, international passport or driver licence)<br />
D) tax clearance certificate<br />
5. Collect copy of acknowledgement of the form to claim the land when its being allocated to you<br />
<br />
<b>NOTE</b><br />
<b><br /></b>1. You are not legally binded to pay any money to anybody apart from the one stated above.<br />
2. Opening of the form does not automatically guarantee you of getting the land but just serve as the first step to acquire the land.<br />
<br />
View the sample of the Land acquisition application form below:<br />
<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhetwIvAaSk8EccUGokO1JHhSTQXQWIPeQB8taBp_ZAGXC19rC_c-xff8h4gNfGXYF9tKEZYnGDQILjkQZYEP7KlZhmcAMcHsNHcLU7altZlZV5Qgz_IXlO2pjTq-nfSixsVKDA_uddo2C2/s1600/AGIS+Land+form.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhetwIvAaSk8EccUGokO1JHhSTQXQWIPeQB8taBp_ZAGXC19rC_c-xff8h4gNfGXYF9tKEZYnGDQILjkQZYEP7KlZhmcAMcHsNHcLU7altZlZV5Qgz_IXlO2pjTq-nfSixsVKDA_uddo2C2/s320/AGIS+Land+form.jpg" width="240" /></a></div>
<br />Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-67430556270305269852015-01-29T05:43:00.000-08:002016-10-11T07:14:10.342-07:00Fashola unveils Agege transfer loading station<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6v-gDC74_NuVl8NOStYsbSjD6HeUToss5CShVCCz0v1O6CUGJOXWbTFdRyMFaQmvClH0jsBZo-w2X-XcVwanHpJwXxbJGoxotrPe12L4joNc76QyFOcpuUkTiDu1nELktu0qXNO_zvoNR/s1600/fash.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="waste transfer loading station" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6v-gDC74_NuVl8NOStYsbSjD6HeUToss5CShVCCz0v1O6CUGJOXWbTFdRyMFaQmvClH0jsBZo-w2X-XcVwanHpJwXxbJGoxotrPe12L4joNc76QyFOcpuUkTiDu1nELktu0qXNO_zvoNR/s1600/fash.jpg" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
On the 26th of November 2014, the Lagos state Governor, Mr. Babatunde Fashola, SAN commissioned the third <b>Transfer Loading Station</b> in Lagos state, the Agege Waste Transfer Loading station. The newly built transfer loading station is located at Oba Ogunji Road , Agege, Pen-Cinema, Lagos.<br />
<br />
<br />
Transfer Loading Stations (TLS) are centralized facilities where waste is unloaded from smaller collection vehicles and re-loaded into larger vehicles for transport to a disposal or processing site. The transportation of garbage from the transfer loading stations is done generally using large Trailers. Basically, TLS is a processing site for temporary deposition of <b>waste</b> and it serve as middleman between collection vehicles and final treatment or disposal facility.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzFyC6sZMJU6PimHAEyUS-_v0UyPeK5_JutJ21jnOcMLRkelSyxXniA6q4YCW0dBpDr03p_M_sL8YujQ-vHrMBTGLU3Dnt7-FsHdPezfQLhgzAIHbRyljlzU9EwOsMGxNwBB_6MBeryfEG/s1600/tls.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="212" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzFyC6sZMJU6PimHAEyUS-_v0UyPeK5_JutJ21jnOcMLRkelSyxXniA6q4YCW0dBpDr03p_M_sL8YujQ-vHrMBTGLU3Dnt7-FsHdPezfQLhgzAIHbRyljlzU9EwOsMGxNwBB_6MBeryfEG/s1600/tls.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgJPld1Ik-njR_vrsQoKe4o6O_omv0U5rL_gXZMT13G9zlYtEOtY4MOMpkLayuoihyHfCCzagUwY20DAWcOLMHGI0g32f1ZCkrca2BXwxx354S3spcTFqnPZmHtHBa_94v4dxWyLL6v_7Z/s1600/tls.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="212" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgJPld1Ik-njR_vrsQoKe4o6O_omv0U5rL_gXZMT13G9zlYtEOtY4MOMpkLayuoihyHfCCzagUwY20DAWcOLMHGI0g32f1ZCkrca2BXwxx354S3spcTFqnPZmHtHBa_94v4dxWyLL6v_7Z/s1600/tls.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<i>Agege TLS<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<br />
The first transfer loading station was commissioned at Simpson street in Lagos Island, and its simply about solid waste. Unlike the first transfer loading station, the second transfer loading station (Oshodi Transfer loading station) and the third (Agege transfer loading station) help to do more as they have been embedded with a <b>medical waste</b> treatment facilities to provide hospitals and clinics closed by with efficient depository for treatment and disposal of medical waste in a safe and healthy manner, said Mr. Fashola.<br />
<br />
Last year, the acting managing director of Lagos Waste Management Authority (LAWMA), Mrs Abimbola Jijho-Ogun disclosed plans to construct 20 Transfer Loading Station to serve 20 Local Government and 37 Local Council Development Area across the state during the second “<i>Waste to Food</i>” initiative programme held at Agege Stadium, Lagos state. “<i>Waste to Food</i>” is an annual event targeted at children during the holiday period that seeks to inculcate the waste sorting and recycling culture them at the early stages of life. It is to integrate children and corporate organizations into recycling initiative.<br />
<br />
Mr. Fashola stressed that as the State Government is providing additional loading stations, new developments are also coming up as smart entrepreneurs are keen on taking on the management of the refuse dumps by turning them into recycling plants. Knowing that the world is embracing recycling and that for a country like Nigeria where the emphasis is use of non-biodegradable materials like bottles, plastics, polyethylene, a change of attitude must take place. He stressed that a new recycling plant has already been put in place in Alimosho and that with the way and manner the company is going about the recycling of generated waste in the area, the State may no longer need the projected 20 Transfer loading stations anymore.<br />
<br />
Mr. Fashola added that the administration would build about 10 Transfer Loading Stations across the State through recommended strategies employ deal with similar problem in distant locations. This is a promise made to the electorate and believes is party must fulfill as a matter of honour as he has done. He recollected that the idea of waste management formed a major part of his electioneering campaign when residents sought to know how he intends to tackle the issue of waste in the Agege area.<br />
<br />
He warns resident to stop patronizing cart pushers as they do more harm than good by collecting <b>refuse</b> from residents and indiscriminately dumping them such refuse in canal and unauthorized locations. This is reasonable because the aftermath of this is that refuse will block drainage channel which in turn leads to flood and also, stagnant water encourages the breeding of mosquitoes resulting in turn in many cases of malaria and dengue fever. Dumps are invaded by waste pickers and animals which scatter the wastes and the wastes serve as breeding grounds for disease vectors, primarily flies and rats. Inspite of any unemployment caused whatsoever, Mr. Fashola reiterated that the State is working on a programme to integrate the cart pushers with compactors and can also participate in the waste sorting exercise. <br />
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>Traditional rulers,
market men and women,residents, captains of industry and other stake holders
during the commissioning of the TLS<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
Fashola said the Agege Transfer Loading Station is a possibility today because some people agreed to let go of their titles on the land for the betterment of the majority. In a message of goodwill, a former title holder of the land on which the Agege Transfer Loading Station has been built, Major Olanrewaju expressed his appreciation to the State Government for providing him with a replacement land at Abijo GRA. However, the State is still confronted with people instituting court cases to stop government from embarking on public projects such as the <a href="http://www.ngrguardiannews.com/features/law/186101-court-halts-osborne-jetty-construction" target="_blank">latest reports of a court injunction asking the State to stop work on the Osborne Jetty which is nearing completion.</a><br />
<br />
According to the Managing Director of the Lagos State Waste Management Authority( LAWMA), Mr Ola Oresanya, with the established benchmarks for development and operation of the Transfer Loading Station (TLS), LAWMA is set to allow the private sectors to participate effectively and creditably in the rapid development of the remaining 17 TLS across the State. Oresanya explained that for the immediate take-off, four sites are ready for development namely Ogombo, Abule- Egba, Ishasi and Owutu in Ikorodu.
Also in a goodwill message, the Vice Chairman of the Waste Managers, Mr Taju Ekemode thanked the Governor for creating a scheme that has created employment for civil, mechanical, electrical engineers and artisans of various vocations. He appealed to the State Government to revisit the issue of incinerators so as to reduce the number of vehicles going to the landfill sites.<br />
<br />
IMAGE SOURCE: tyballo.blogspot.comBolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-28655585065234488892014-12-22T05:46:00.001-08:002017-02-16T16:40:44.955-08:00FASHOLA UNVEILS DEVELOPMENT PLAN FOR NEXT ELEVEN YEARS IN LAGOS STATE<div dir="ltr">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8eIk4I7qCpNqot42yc3mWLhMghIGFeNGVCbp7Z3eyl8Bh7cuHqSGAE-MbRu-dtcsWNcTVYlhIC2y90oT3p45tvUY65FEIgqaZQPBezvcL48obdoXefopp8l5l7jY8evoDx4fxI9RtilTZ/s640/logo.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em;"><img alt="Lagos state development plan" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8eIk4I7qCpNqot42yc3mWLhMghIGFeNGVCbp7Z3eyl8Bh7cuHqSGAE-MbRu-dtcsWNcTVYlhIC2y90oT3p45tvUY65FEIgqaZQPBezvcL48obdoXefopp8l5l7jY8evoDx4fxI9RtilTZ/s640/logo.png" /></a></div>
<br />
Lagos state governor, Mr Babatunde Fashola, SAN on the 16th of December 2014, publicly presented the Lagos State Development Plan 2012-2025, stating that quite a number of the items that form the D<b>evelopment Plan</b> are already in progress.</div>
<div dir="ltr">
<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr">
A <b>Development Plan</b> is an aspect of town and country planning comprising of set of documents (written statements and accompany maps) that set out the overall strategy for proper planning, development and use of land in an area in other to achieve sustainable development and create human settlements that accommodate a variety of land uses to meet the needs of the people who live in this settlements.</div>
<div dir="ltr">
The Lagos State Development Plan (LSDP) is a policy document that came into being by harmonizing all existing high level policy documents operational in the State. It captures past strategic development plans and statements and bring them into a harmonious and coherent whole (Lagos State Development Plan 2012-2025).</div>
<div dir="ltr">
<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr">
Lagos has always been Nigeria’s most populous city but its rapid growth began in the 1980s and has continued to this day. This growth is fuelled by a large amount of in-migration from the surrounding rural areas as well as from further afield. Lagos reached a Mega City status (cities over 10 million) by 1995 and the State Bureau of Statistics estimates that its current (2011) population stands at just over 20 million. By 2015 it is estimated that Lagos will be ranked as the third largest city in the world after Tokyo and Mumbai (Lagos State Development Plan 2012-2025). </div>
<div dir="ltr">
<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr">
According to Mr Babatunde Fashola, Lagos City-State as one of the fastest growing cities in the world has a vision of becoming Africa’s Model Mega City and Global, Economic and Financial Hub that is Safe, Secure, Functional and Productive. To achieve this laudable objective, there is need to direct investment towards economic development of Lagos. Thus, LSDP serves as a veritable platform providing overall direction for the growth and development of the State.</div>
<div dir="ltr">
<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr">
Basically, development plans of any sort involve deliberate efforts on the part of government to speed up the process of social and economic development of a country and good governance. In pure capitalist countries, like developing countries, where government intervention is relatively small, the provision of a policy framework usually through development plans cannot be overemphasized for the economy and other sectors to operate. The most logical interpretation of this is that the relative rates at which heavy industry, light industry, agricultural improvement, transport and commerce, housing and the like are to be pursued become a matter of conscious policy (Ayinla, 1998). </div>
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<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr">
According to Fashola, in the area of transportation, the Ferry terminal in Badore and Ikordu has finished and the one in Osborne almost completed, Train terminus already built at Mile 2, Orile and Costain and more are on their way. In terms of water supply, the state now has full power at Adiyan water works and long term desalination may be considered in some areas due to limited water resources. Work has started at Odo Iya Alaro waste water treatment plant. Not forgetting the housing sector, Governor Fashola said that homes construction are ongoing at 21 different sites, adding that the State has kept the promise of delivering 200 new homes every month to qualified residents.</div>
<div dir="ltr">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div dir="ltr">
<h3>
<b>Importance of the Development Plan</b></h3>
</div>
<div dir="ltr">
With the development plan, all developments in the area of jurisdiction of the plan must comply with the requirements of the plan i.e it guides how development should progress in an area.</div>
<div dir="ltr">
For all sectors, it will provide the means through which their performance can be evaluated against the set goals and objectives. <br />
The plan will also be a vehicle through which the State Government can publicise to the general public the direction in which the State intends to advance development over the coming ten years and beyond. </div>
<div dir="ltr">
Finally such a plan will also be an important framework for international assistance.</div>
<div dir="ltr">
According to Governor Fashola, the Lagos State Development Plan is one which the average resident in Lagos state must take ownership of because it provides a framework which all sectors of the economy – public, private and civil society - can direct their energies and contribute to the improvement of the quality of life of people in the State. </div>
<div dir="ltr">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div dir="ltr">
<h3>
<b>DOWNLOAD</b></h3>
</div>
<div dir="ltr">
<a href="http://www.lagosstate.gov.ng/LAGOS%20STATE%20ABRIDGED%20VERSION%20LAGOS%20STATE%20DEVELOPMENT%20PLAN.pdf">LAGOS STATE ABRIDGED VERSION LAGOS SATE DEVELOPMENT PLAN</a></div>
<div dir="ltr">
<a href="http://www.lagosstate.gov.ng/LAGOS%20STATE%20MAIN%20VOLUME%20Inside.pdf">LAGOS SATE MAIN VOLUME INSIDE</a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-68194961133312770262014-09-28T02:19:00.000-07:002016-10-11T07:13:14.055-07:00LAND TENURE SYSTEM IN SOUTH-WESTERN NIGERIA (PART II)<div class="MsoNormal">
<h2>
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">LAND
TENURE SYSTEM IN SOUTH-WESTERN NIGERIA DURING THE COLONIAL RULE</span></b></h2>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> During
Colonial Era, before the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern Nigeria in
1914, the Colonial Nigeria was divided into colonies and protectorates where
multiplicity of <b>land tenure system</b> existed. The arrival of the Europeans in
Southern Nigeria in the later part of 19<sup>th</sup> century drastically
changed the land holding system. The European traders, who were used to
freehold, began to acquire land parcel in Lagos Colony, did so with the concept
that the transaction conferred on them absolute ownership and the right of
alienation. The transaction in land by the European and the introduction of
English Freehold System in 1951 (Elias, 1971) caused deep conflict between the
customary system of land tenure and imported freehold system, which resulted in
endless and bitter litigation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> A
number of different phases may be distinguished in the debate about land. These
phases are marked by the changing relationships between Africans,
administrators and commercial interests. In the early colonial period the
attitude of the administration was one of indifference. However, as the state
and commercial interests began to seek and obtain interests in land, the issue
took on increasing importance, becoming a preoccupation of Nigeria's colonial
administrators. From this period, the ‘land question’ figures repeatedly in
colonial correspondence, memoranda, reports and enquiries. The main concern of
the colonialists was with political stability rather than agricultural
development, their fear being that the extensive alienation of interests in
land to national or expatriate commercial interests would lead to landlessness
and discontent.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> In
Northern Nigeria, the Land and Native Rights Ordinance of 1910 vested all lands
in the governor of Northern Nigeria. Similar legislation was proposed in some
quarters for the south of the country, but this was strenuously, and in the end
successfully, resisted by indigenous interests. In southern Nigeria, the system
recognised that land was owned by lineages or extended families. Individuals
have only right of use on such family land. The only land held at the Governor’s disposal
was that which
had been expressly
acquired for public purposes as
Crown land. The only control imposed by law on the lineages and other local
landholders was an obligation to seek the consent of Government when rights are
being conveyed to aliens.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
colonial administration in southern Nigeria recognised the existing indigenous
system of land management and administration. The Treaty of Cession of 1861 was
signed by Oba Dosunmu of Lagos; but what Oba Dosunmu transferred were sovereign
rights only to the Queen of Great Britain, her heirs and successors forever. However,
the court ruled later that property rights of individuals or inhabitants were
not affected by the treaties. Thus, it was only the management of land that was transferred. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
Native Lands Acquisition Proclamation of 1st January 1900, provided that with
effect from 1st January, 1900: No person other than a Native shall either directly
or indirectly acquire right in or over land within southern Nigeria from
Natives without the written consent of the High Commissioner. Any such interest
or right over land acquired without such consent from shall become null or
void. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
crown did not claim beneficial ownership of land by virtue of the declaration
of the protectorate in 1900. The crown however, did inherit certain parcels of
land which were vested in the royal Niger company, its predecessor. These lands
has been acquired from the local chiefs along both sides of the Niger and they
became vested in the government in trust for her majesty absolutely by virtue
of the Niger land Transfer Ordinance 1916. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> By
1906, the Crown Lands Management Proclamation was introduced. It was designed to
provide for the management, control and
disposition of Crown Lands in the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria. It provided
that the High land Commissioner shall have the management of all that Crown
Lands in the Protectorate; and that he may for 'from time to time sell, lease, exchange or
otherwise dispose of such lands as he may think fit.'<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Crown
lands were defined as all lands and all rights in land and over which at any
time or after the commencement of the proclamation are vested in, held in trust
for or otherwise belong to her majesty, her heirs and successors.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Another important land legislation
was the Native Lands Acquisition Ordinance of 1908. This ordinance sought to
regulate the acquisition of land by aliens from the Natives. However, the 1908 Ordinance
was repealed in 1917 by the Native Lands Acquisition Ordinance No 32 of 1917.
This Ordinance provided amongst others that no alien should acquire any
interest or rights in or over any land within the Protectorate from a native
except under an instrument which has received the approval of the Governor. Any
instrument which land did not received the approval of the Governor as required
by the section did null and void. From the foregoing analysis, it is clear that
the colonial lever administration in southern Nigeria was mainly concerned
with, and confined its administrative control that to the alienation of land by
natives to aliens or nonnatives.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b>
<br />
<h3>
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">PROBLEM
OF THE LAND TENURE SYSTEM IN SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA DURING THE COLONIAL RULE IN THE SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></h3>
</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> This
land tenure system of southern Nigeria created a number of problems for
land management in the country.
First, it encouraged the practice of multiple sales of the same land to
different buyers by landowning families in
the absence of a titling and appropriate registration mechanisms for transactions in land.
Second, The introduction of freehold in the Southern States and the subsequent
economic development resulted in the evolvement of many varied interest or
right in land especially in urban areas. Particularly after
the nation’s political independence, it led to tremendous land speculation and a sharp
rise in the
prices of land for urban and infrastructural development. Poor farming
families were encouraged to part
with their land
for relatively small amount compared
with what the speculators made from
laying the land out for sale. This promoted increasing
inequality in land ownership and increasing landlessness among the poorer
segments of the population. Speculators made it very difficult for other land
users and even various governments and their agencies to acquire land for development
purposes (Atilola and Fajemirokun, 1979). After government had invoked its
rights of eminent domain to compulsorily acquire
and pay compensation for land
for public purposes,
the tendency grew for some
owners of land to refuse to vacate their land. Based on
the open system value of land which
required cash compensation for land compulsorily acquired by government for
public purposes, the increasing intervention of land speculators made the cost
of acquisition to rise phenomenally.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h3>
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">REFERENCES</span></b></h3>
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">B.A
Garner (1999): Black Law Dictionary. West Group U.S.A. 7<sup>th</sup> ed. p.881.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">B.
O. Nwabueze (1982): Nigerian Land Law. Nwamife Publishers Ltd Enugu
p.3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">C.R.A
Coker (1966): Family Property Among The Yoruba. Sweet and Maxwell
London, 2<sup>nd</sup> Edition P.34<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">C.W. Rowling (1952): Report on Land <span style="letter-spacing: .7pt;"> </span>Tenure in Ondo <span style="letter-spacing: .45pt;"> </span>Province.<span style="letter-spacing: 1.45pt;"> </span>Government <span style="letter-spacing: 1.85pt;"> </span>Printer. Lagos.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">5.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Federal
Republic of Nigeria. 1978. <i>Land Use Decree. </i>No. 6 of 1978<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">6.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I.E. Nwokora (1989): The Nigeria
Juridical Review vol.4
p. 92-93.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">7.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">R.W
James.(1987): Nigerian Land Use Act: policy and principles. University of Ife
Press, IIe-Ife P.1. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">8.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">J.S. Eades
(1980): The Yoruba Today. Cambridge Univeristy Press. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">9.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kludz Ewe
(1974): Law of property. Evans London , p.11</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">10.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kenneth
PARSONS : <i>Customary Land
Tenure and The Development of
African Agriculture. </i>Land Tenure Center, University
of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wisconsin, page 16.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">11.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">N. A. Olienu (1962): Customary Land Law
in Ghana. Sweet and Maxwell London pg 37.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">12.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Obi
(1963): Ibo Law of Property. Butterworth London p. 113.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">13.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">O.G Amasiatu, O.U. Onuoha & Kenneth Aqwu
(2010): Land Rights Characteristics And Access To Land:Implications On Food
Security In Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in
Developing Countries, Volume 2
Numbers 2 & 3, 2010. Pg 148-149<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">14.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Okoronkwo, C. (2009). Power of attorney as an
instrument for alienation of interest in Land in Nigeria. A paper delivered on
the NIESV 2009 MCPD organized by the Imo State chapter of NIESV in association
with ESVARBON. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">15.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ola C.S. (1984): Town and Country Planning and
Environmental Laws in Nigeria. University Press Ibadan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">16.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Onwuchekwa, S. (1999): Land ownership and conflict
in Nigeria. Umuahia: Kab Publicity<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">17.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">P.A. Francis
(1984): 'For the Use and Common Benefit of all Nigerians': Consequencies of the 1978 land
nationalisation. Africa 54(3):5-28.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">18.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">P.C.
Lloyd (1962): Yoruba land law. Oxford University Press, Ibadan, p.56<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">19.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Real Estate Dictionary. Retrieved on 28/06/2010
from http://</span><a href="http://www.financialpublishing.com/realestatedictionary"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">www.financialpublishing.com/realestatedictionary</span></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">20.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">R. Galletti,
K.D.S. Baldwin and I.0. Dina
(1956): Nigerian Cocoa ·Farmers. Oxford University Press, London.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-53128323365182238202014-09-28T02:16:00.004-07:002016-10-11T07:12:20.696-07:00LAND TENURE SYSTEM IN SOUTH-WESTERN NIGERIA (PART I)<h3>
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">CUSTOMARY LAND TENURE
SYSTEM IN SOUTH-WESTERN NIGERIA</span></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b><a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2014/09/concept-of-land-tenure-system-in-nigeria.html" target="_blank">Land tenure system</a></b> in the South Western Nigeria show
a marked variation and have also been subject to considerable change in the
course of present century under the influence of increasing population
densities and the spread of cocoa. The cocoa industry first develop in the Western
areas: Ilaro, Agege, Abeokuta, Ibadan and Ijebu. As the trees in these areas
have aged, the centre of production has gradually moved east to Ondo, Akure and
Owo and in some western areas kola has replaced cocoa entirely. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> According
to Eades (1980), <b>Land tenure</b> is a question
of great complexity and only a very schematic account can be given
here. Three important points should be made
at the outset. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">First a distinction has to be made between
the right to use<i> </i>land
and rights of full ownership,
particularly the right to alienate it. In many cases throughout Yorubaland, the
two do not coincide.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Second,
as land becomes more valuable, either because of its increasing scarcity
or its potential for cash crops, conflict
over access to, and control of, land will increase, and an increasing quantum
of rights will be asserted over it. As Lloyd (1962) remarks of Ondo land tenure, “while land has little scarcity
or commercial value it will be described as communal: but as soon as it becomes
valuable the descent groups currently using it will begin to claim amount to
full ownership”. In different areas of Yorubaland, ownership of land is
variously thought of as being vested in the ruler on behalf of the community,
as being vested in descent groups, or as being vested in individuals. In Ondo,
the position, according to Lloyd (1962), is that the ruler claims that all land
belongs to him on behalf of the community. An Ondo man may farm anywhere in the
kingdom provided that if he farms within one hour’s walk (3 - 4 miles) 0f subordinate
town, he must get the permission of “Oloja” (ruler) of the town ; he may not be
disturbed in his possession of land, but should he abandon it the land reverts
to the community. The Ondo rules may reflect Benin influence: in the Benin
Kingdom, land is vested in the community rather than in descent groups.
However, it appears that Ondo descent groups have asserted rights of ownership
over particular tracts of land, particularly on the perimeter of the capital
and in areas suitable for cocoa-planting, where they are demanding annual
payments (isakole) for the use of the land.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thirdly, a sharp distinction as to be
drawn between the rights that a member of a kingdom can have in its land the
rights which can be acquired by an outsider.
In many cases, outsiders can become
tenants, but cannot claim rights
of ownership over land, and as the
scarcity of land increases, the more
rigidly this rule may be applied.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> According
to Eades (1980), rights in land may be vested in a variety of social groups
which may be defined in political, residential or kinship terms, or a
combination of these. Residentially defined groups include communities,
quarters and villages, while groups based on kinship include lineages of
various depths and sizes, extended families and households. In the Ondo area,
for example, substantial rights remain vested in the community while in
Abeokuta, most land is held by individuals (Rowling, 1952; Lloyd, 1962). In
most areas the important unit of land ownership is the lineage, or idile. Criteria
for lineage membership are by no means
uniform, and in particular recognition of the validity of matrilateral links
(i.e. the mother's side), is variable. In general, while there is a fairly
strong patrilineal ideology, in practice kinship links of other kinds, as well
as co-residence, may form the basis for participation in lineage affairs and
access to land. Lloyd (1962) records of some areas that lineage land was
reallocated annually to members, and that in Ado Ekiti lineage members required
the permission of the lineage to plant permanent crops. In general, whether
land is obtained through membership of a community or lineage or through inheritance, the wider group exercises little
control over its use, and the individual is free to plant either food or tree
crops.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Descent
group control over land is more usual. This is the pattern in Ibadan, Ijebu
and Ekiti. Within the descent
group, land is allocated according to need. A farmer
can use land allocated to him and
can pass it on to his children, but usually he cannot alienate it without the
permission of the descent group as a whole. In the case of large descent groups
a process of partition has often taken place. The land is divided between segments
which can dispose of it without reference to the other segments and this
process of fragmentation has reached its fullest extent in Egba, where it is
common to have land rights vested in individual farmers (Lloyd, 1962). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> In
Ibadan descent-group control of land has remained strong, despite the early
introduction of cocoa. In the 19th century the leading warriors and their followers
claimed large tracts of land, and they maintained control over them into the colonial
period, establishing a tradition of corporate ownership. On the introduction of
cocoa, hunters who acted as guides to Ibadan farmers looking for land in the
forest suitable for cocoa began to claim rights of ownership over it
themselves. Their ownership was marked by the initial gifts they received from
the farmers, and by annual payments of <i>isakole </i>thereafter. At first these
were nominal payments recognising ownership, rather than an economic rental. The
tenants could remain permanently, and pass their usufructuary rights on to
their children who continued to pay <i>isakole</i>
but they had no right to alienate the
land itself (Eades, 1980). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> According
to Eades (1980), Land rights took a different form in Egba, where a free
market in land </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">had developed
before 1880, before the arrival of cocoa. European concepts of ownership had
been introduced by the Saro repatriates to Abeokuta. After 1880 re-colonisation
of land abandoned during the 1820s was stimulated by the introduction of the
new crop, and the elders of the abandoned towns, now living in Abeokuta, began
to reallocate land to individual farmers in return for gifts. These transactions
came to be regarded as sales. Land sales became so common that steps had to be
taken to restrict them to members of the kingdom. With the division of Abeokuta
into townships and the complex political
institutions cross-cutting lines
of descent, powerful descent groups on
the Ibadan model did not emerge. Partitioning of land in each generation has
meant that some land has been inherited through
women as men without sons have passed on their holdings to their </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">daughters.
Taken together, these factors have led to a situation in which farmers have widely scattered plots separated in some cases by 30 km or more.
Plots which a farmer is unable to use may be let to tenants, for food-crop cultivation
rather than cocoa-planting.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Individual
ownership may result from other processes. In a recent study </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">of the
lfe-Ondo border area, Clarke (1979) found that individual tenure had developed
through individual colonization and appropriation of forest land from the 1930s
onwards, without a stage of descent group.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Non-members
of landowning groups may also obtain the use of land. Within the traditional
system, the granting of land to immigrants was merely an aspect of their
integration into the community. Where tribute was paid, this was a question of political,
rather than economic, significance. As scarcity has given land a value, relations
between the grantors and grantees of land have become more narrowly economic,
although the process has been an uneven one.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 'Strangers'
(alejo) may obtain access to land in a number of different ways. Most critical
is the fact that grants of land do not necessarily include the right to plant
trees (Galletti 1955; Francis 1984). Thus Lloyd (1962) records of the Ijebu Ode
area is that while some strangers were granted land in perpetuity, these grants
were for food crops only and the land could not be transferred by the grantee. More common arrangement was for
strangers to be given land for a single crop cycle in exchange for a cash
payment to the head of the granting
group. No rights over existing trees were transferred, and the tenant was not
allowed to plant permanent crops. With the harvest of the last crop, the tenant
must pay a fresh fee for another plot of
fallow land. In other parts of Ijebu
the system differed: in Ijebu Igbo, land was granted to strangers by village
heads in exchange for annual payments, while in Iwoye payments were due to the chief. In Abeokuta
grants of fallow land included only the right to plant food crops, and
tenancies could be ended at the end of
any cropping cycle. An annual rent was payable in cash. In Ado Ekiti and Ijesha
too, grants of land for growing food crops only are distinguished from those
which include the right to plant trees (Lloyd, 1962; Francis, 1984).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">These restrictions
notwithstanding, outsiders have been able
to obtain land for the cultivation of
economic trees from landowning groups. The terms of such arrangements varied from place to place. In
general, an initial payment was made when the land was granted and this was followed by annual payments <span style="letter-spacing: .2pt;"> </span>to the landowner in cash or kind. These payments came to be known as <i>isakole</i> and to be enforceable in customary
courts. In the Ibadan area, lineages
with claims over extensive tracts of land, which often <span style="letter-spacing: .15pt;"> </span>originated</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
i</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">n
hunters' rights, made grants to others of Ibadan origin in exchange for initial</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> presents followed by annual payments of cash. In
other areas, an influx of migrant tenants from areas to the north accompanied
the spread of cocoa cultivation and perhaps facilitated the commercialisation
of land tenure. At Ife, the
typical rates of <i>isakole</i> on land for
cocoa cultivation were two quarters or a hundredweight of cocoa per year, and these
terms applied to natives and strangers alike. Similar arrangements evolved in the
Ijesha area, though here only immigrants were liable for <i>isakole </i>(Berry, 1975;
Francis, 1984). Lloyd (1962) recorded that in Ondo a newcomer had the same rights as a native.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> However,
by the 1970's this system had broken down with the arrival of migrants and
substantial sums of <i>isakole</i> were being demanded from tenants. In general, the social
obligations and implications of tenancy have tended to diminish with time,
while the cost of obtaining rights in land has risen. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h3>
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">SHORTCOMINGS
OF THE CUSTOMARY FORM OF TENURE IN SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA</span></b></h3>
</div>
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Adegboye (1967)
identifies defects in land tenure, farm tenancy and the provision of agricultural
credit as obstacles to increasing productivity per acre and per farmer. With
regard to land tenure he states that: ‘The present structure of land tenure
makes it virtually impossible for enterprising young farmers to mobilise their
labour and capital as freely as they would like to’. This is so because sales
of land are rare, and thus the cultivator and his descendants are confined to
family land, and because the division of land upon inheritance leads to
holdings becoming uneconomic in size and productivity. The defects of customary
farm tenancy are enumerated as follows: the terms of leases are often verbal
and indefinite; the amount of tribute paid is governed more by the tenant's
relationship to his landlord than by the fertility or location of the land;
subleasing is common in some areas; and the tenant is sometimes forbidden to
plant permanent crops. Overall, the tenant's insecure position discourages him
from making substantial investments of capital or labour in the land which he
occupies. The principal problem with regard to agricultural credit is also held
to stem from customary land tenure: ‘A piece of land which is communally owned
cannot be used for collateral’ and thus the commercial banks do not lend to
farmers (Adegboye,1967).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span>Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-13972023999700276562014-09-28T02:13:00.003-07:002016-10-22T06:36:43.633-07:00CONCEPT OF LAND TENURE SYSTEM IN NIGERIA<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Land
tenure </b>is the system of land holding in any given society. It is also define as
the holding of <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2014/09/legal-concept-of-land.html" target="_blank">land</a> or the right to hold <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2014/09/legal-concept-of-land.html" target="_blank">land</a>. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>The concept of land tenure </b>
has been described as a systematization of the rules which function by specifying what different classes of
persons may or may not must or must not do, with reference to the occupancy,
use, abuse or disposition of land. Such
rules define the privileges and obligations,
the rights and duties of persons
in relation to each other, with reference to land. The system of land
tenure also sets out the method of administration with regard to acquisition,
distribution, exploitation and use of specific portions of land. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Land
tenure systems may be extremely complex. It will therefore be helpful to distinguish
those rights over land. According to (Amasiatu, 2010), there exist different
types of rights exercised over land. Among the varieties are:</span><br />
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Usufructuary
right:</span></b><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> This is the right to use and profit from property
vested in another, so long as the user (usufructuary) does not change the
substance of the property. It would include an easement but not a profit a
prendre (Real Estate Dictionary, n.d). Another source defined this right as a
system of land tenure where land is communally owned and people have free
access to use it.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Right
of Occupancy:</span></b><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> This type of right is documented in a
certificate of occupancy (C of O) and refers to the right granted to a holder
to occupy a property within a limited/defined time frame. In Nigeria, this
right came with the land use Act of 1978 which recognizes the right of
occupancy as the only interest in land in Nigeria according to Okoronkwo
(2009), "the right inherent in the certificate of occupancy does not
confer proprietary rights of ownership of land to the holder but of occupancy
and use only".</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Residual
Rights:</span></b><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> According to Onwuchekwa (1999), this right applies
when a land is under pledge. The individual to whom the land is pledged
continues to use the land perpetually until the land is redeemed. Property
Right: According to a Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO, 2003), the right
that a person has in an object such as land may be considered as property… In
the case of land tenure, it is sometimes described more precisely as property
rights to land. Mbadiwe (1998) adds that land use decisions can only be taken
and carried out by people with property rights in land. Property right could be
said to confer on its holder, proprietary right as it were.</span></li>
<li><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Symbolic
Right:</span></b><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> This applies where land has been donated for
development project without any monetary attachments but mere recognition of
the donor (Onwuchekwa, 1999).</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Grazing
Rights:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> This is a form of right granted to people to graze
on another person's land (Onwuchekwa, 1999; FAO (n. d)). Communal Rights: A
right of commons where each member of a community has a right to use the
holdings of the community independently (FAO (n. d)). </span></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Freehold
and leasehold rights:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> By and large, land rights could be
classified as customary rights and statutory rights. Leasehold, freehold and
rights of occupancy are examples of statutory rights. They are defined by
clearly stated laws/ regulations. Customary rights such as usufructuary rights,
symbolic rights, grazing rights, communal rights, property rights etc, are
derivatives of customs and traditions. In some instances, some of these rights
find their places in both categories.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> However,
it must be recognized and stressed that the duality of the Nigeria legal
systems, (that is, the administration of both the customary laws and the
Received English Laws with respect to land) has resulted in the existence of
<b>customary and non-customary land tenure systems in Nigeria.</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2014/09/legal-concept-of-land.html" target="_blank"> Land</a>
is of fundamental importance in traditional Nigerian society, and is communally
owned, although family or corporate ownership existed side by side with
communal ownership. It is a source of wealth and is greatly valued as an
indispensable factor of production. Agriculture, the oldest occupation of
mankind, takes place on land. Traditional Africa in general and Nigeria in
particular maintained a liberal policy of allocation of land resources. Land
was allocated to families and individuals, while the community or clan
maintained absolute ownership. The chief or the head of the lineage or clan was
the custodian of the land. His position was that of a trustee, holding the land
for the clan or the whole community. These custodians were invested with the
power to manage and administer the communal property but in the interests of
members of the community. Strangers and people with problems were easily absorbed
and settled without discrimination and with land to use at their discretion.
These additions were based on the cultural beliefs and attitudes towards life
and hospitality.<o:p></o:p> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> It
must also be recognized that both the customary and non-customary land tenure
systems in Nigeria have been qualified by the <b><a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2012/11/summary-of-land-use-act-decree-no-6-of.html" target="_blank">Land Use Act of 1978</a></b> to the
extent that the Act now provides for new uniform tenure system in Nigeria
although it still preserves the existing title and rights to possession of
land.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-90789857821969791762014-09-28T02:09:00.001-07:002016-10-22T06:33:50.088-07:00LEGAL CONCEPT OF LAND<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: ""times new roman"","serif";">Black
law dictionary 7<sup>th</sup> edition defines<b> land</b> as “An
immovable and indestructible three dimensional areas consisting of a portion of
the earth’s surface the space above and below the surface and
everything growing on or permanently affixed to the land”.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: ""times new roman"","serif";"> What
emerges from the definition above is that land may have both a natural
and artificial content, though its natural content namely the ground and its
subsoil and things below or above the earth’s surface, where an artificial
content includes building and other structures or trees has been added. It
further explains that land is immovable. However, the question has arisen
whether such additions form an integral part of the ground so as to accrue to
the owner of the ground.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: ""times new roman"","serif";"> Under
English law, the part or principle of “quic quid plantatour solo solo credit”
which means that whatever is attached or fixed to the land is part of the land
is fully operational. Thus building material placed on land do not become land
until the building is erected and would cease to be part of the land when the
building is demolished. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: ""times new roman"","serif";">
The applicability of the maxim quic quid plantatour solo solo credit to
customary law has been a matter of great controversy amongst writers. In
Ezejiofor (1989) view, the maxim quic quid plantatour solo solo credit is
not a rule of customary law there under a person who for whatever reasons
introduces an improvement unto land without the permission of the landowner is
the rightful owner of the improvement. According to Obi (1963),
a remarkable aspect of African customary law is that land does not includes
things growing on, attached to the soil and that neither economic trees not houses
form a part of the land on which they stand. In Yoruba’s customary law, a
definition is drawn between land (the soil) and improvements thereon
(Lloyd,1962). Expressing a similar view, Kludz (1974) explained that among the
Ewes in Modern day Ghana land means the soil itself as well as the subsoil and
anything under the soil such as soil minerals but that does not include things
as or attached to the soil such as tree, houses or other permanent fixtures to
these writers the principles of quic quid plantatour solo solo credit is not
part of our customary land law. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: ""times new roman"","serif";">
According to section 3 (miscellaneous provision) of the Land Use Act of
1978, “immovable property or lands included land, everything attached to
the earth, and chattels real, but does not include minerals in
the language of the property. Property and Conveyancing Law of Western
Nigeria states that land includes land of any tenure, buildings or parts
of buildings (whether the division is horizontal, vertical or made in any other
way) and other corporal hereditaments and an easement, right, privileged or
benefit in, over, or derived from land.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: ""times new roman"","serif";">
Nwabueze (1982), while endorsing the above definitions, states that land does
not only mean the ground and its subsoil but includes also all structures and
objects, like buildings and tress standing on it. Coker (1966) stated
categorically that in any application of the term land includes building there
on. Supporting this view Olienu (1962) had stated: “the term land as
understood in customary law has a wide application. It includes things on the
soil which are employed with it as being part of the land by nature e.g rivers,
streams, lakes, lagoons, growing trees like palmtrees cassava tree or
as being artificially fixed to it like houses buildings and structures whatever
it is also includes any estate, interest into or over the land denotes e.g. the
right to collect snail, herbs or to hurt on land.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: ""times new roman"","serif";">
From the discussion above, obviously the issues is far from resolved. Suffice
it so say that if the Obi and LIoyd’s views are accepted, then there may exist
a situation in which a building or other structure vest in one
person, while the ground vests in another person. This will certainly
create some problems since the owner who in law has a superior title may be
deprived of the benefit of making full use of his land as he wishes where
someone to whom he has granted an occupational right builds a house during the
subsistence of the agreement is held to remain the owner of the house at the
determination of the agreement.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: ""times new roman"","serif";"> For
this reason, the views expressed by Coker, Olienu and Nwabueze are to be
preferred with the restriction that where landlord and the builder of
the house on the land have evidenced a contrary intention such intention should
be given effect, in such a case, if land lord and a house builder agree that
ownership of house shall continue to vest in the landlord, then the house
builder should continue to retain ownership of the building but will be obliged
to remove it at the instance of the landlord and pay compensation to the
landlord for any damage done to the land.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: ""times new roman"","serif";">
In Nigeria, land takes up importance as a commodity for daily use for
many purposes. For several decades, land has continued
to influence the lives of Nigerians socially, economically and
politically. In the process of using the land, complex set of
relationships has emerged among groups. The more complex various Nigerian
communities become, and the more established are the physical manifestations of
development, the more friction and clashes are likely over rights in land.
This shows that in Nigeria, as in other developing countries generally, land
constitutes a sensitive asset whose administration must be based on meaningful policy
decisions to benefit most Nigerians. </span><br />
<div style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: ""times new roman"","serif";">Land
occupies a unique place in the development process of any individual or
society. The supply of useable land is however limited. No society therefore exists
without a regulation of some kind peculiar to it to rationalize the mode of
ownership and the use of land.</span></div>
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<![endif]-->Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-58101038537963895652012-12-17T07:28:00.001-08:002016-10-22T06:28:31.479-07:00Municipal Solid Waste Management In Developing Countries (Part V)
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;"><a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com/2012/12/municipal-solid-waste-management-in_7556.html" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: large;"><<<</span>Read Part IV</a></span><br />
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</h3>
<h3>
<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;">Health, Environmental Impact and Reasons for
MSWM in Developing Countries </span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Assessing
the impacts of <b>municipal solid waste management</b> involves consideration
of a large number of components. Health impacts include exposure to toxic
chemicals through air, water and soil media; exposure to infection and
biological contaminants; stress related to odor, noise, vermin and visual
amenity; risk of fires, explosions, and subsidence; spills, accidents and
transport emissions.</span></div>
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<li><h4>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Opening dumping:</span></b></h4>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fires should
not be tolerated because of the health impacts of inhaling smoke, particularly
the toxic dioxin and furans gases generated by the burning of certain plastics.
The decomposing wastes produce noxious liquid, known as leachate, especially
during rainy seasons. This leachate flows into streams and groundwater
resources, contaminating water supplies. Scavenging at the dumpsite is a
hazardous occupation for the waste pickers, particularly where dangerous
medical wastes (such as blades and items with needles) are mixed with the
general municipal wastes.</span><b><i></i></b></div>
<ul>
<li><h4>
<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sanitary Landfilling</span></b></h4>
<h4>
</h4>
</li>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Health and
social impacts include odor nuisance; ozone formation that can cause pulmonary
and central nervous system damage; fire and explosion hazards from build-up of
methane; an increase in the number of disease vectors (birds, rodents and
insects); and ground and air pollution from leachate and landfill gases. Water
contamination by leachate can transmit bacteria and diseases. Typhoid fever is
a common problem for the people of developing nations because many of them
cannot afford to dig wells deep enough to reach fresh
aquifers. There are also many environmental impacts of
landfills. Ozone formation can cause decreases in crop yield and plant growth
rate. Methane and carbon dioxide are greenhouse gases that contribute to global
warming.</span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Incineration:</span></b></h4>
</li>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Incineration
impacts society by production of odors. The most important health and
environmental impact is from air emissions, which include particulates, CO, NO<sub>2</sub>,
acid gases (chlorides and sulfides), volatile organics and mercury. These
compounds contribute to bioaccumulation of toxics and acid rain. Inhalation of
particulate matter poses a health danger.</span></div>
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<li><h4>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Composting/Anaerobic Digestion</span></b></h4>
</li>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Health and
social impacts include noise, odor, and unsightliness. Additionally, many of
the microorganisms found in compost are known respiratory sensitizers that can
cause a range of respiratory symptoms including allergic rhinitis, asthma, and
chronic bronchitis. Composting is aerobic and produces primarily carbon
dioxide, while anaerobic digestion produces methane. Both gases contribute to
global warming.</span></div>
<ul>
<li><h4>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Other risks</span></b></h4>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Recycling
can also pose health and environmental risks. Sorting facilities contain high
concentrations of dust, bioaerosols and metals. Workers commonly experience
itching eyes, sore throats, and respiratory disease. Environmentally speaking,
recycling uses a large amount of energy resources. For people in developing
countries, bodily wellbeing is a far more pressing concern than the facts that
open burning of garbage contributes to acid rain or global warming. Outrage
over health issues of poor waste management could therefore be a motivating
factor towards more sustainable environmental practices.</span></div>
<h3 class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Reasons for Municipal Solid Waste Management/ Problem
of Municipal Solid Waste</span></b></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Notwithstanding
the many challenges associated with the above approaches to municipal waste
management, a key question is why at all this is important. Solid waste
management is critical in mitigating risks to public safety, as well as in the
prevention of environmental degradation. Waste is a serious environmental and
health hazard and lead to the spread of infectious diseases. These broad
threats are deemed to be the key reasons for effective municipal solid waste
management:</span></div>
<ul>
<li><h4>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Disease vectors:</span></b></h4>
</li>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Municipal
solid waste disposed improperly provides the perfect environment for the
breeding of rodents, flies and other vermin. Although detritivores (organisms
that feed on and break down dead plant or animal matter, returning essential
nutrients to the ecosystem. They include micro-organisms such as bacteria, as
well as larger organisms such as fungi, insects, and worms) are essential
organisms for breaking down complex organic materials in the decomposition
process, it is important to manage their population since they contribute to
the spread of several related diseases.</span></div>
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<li><h4>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Explosive gases</span></b></h4>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">As garbage
in landfills undergoes microbial decay and other chemical reactions, landfill
gas is produced. Depending on the waste composition and the structure of the
landfill, this gas builds up pressure under the surface, thereby creating a
high incidence of fires and release of toxic fumes. Landfill gas also has
traces of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapour, sulphur and other contaminants. It is
for this reason that solid waste management should be well designed, with
adequate systems for the monitoring and control of the emission of landfill
gases.</span></div>
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<li><h4>
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Air pollution and other environmental nuisances</span></b></h4>
</li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Normally it is the wet waste that decomposes and
releases a bad odour. This leads to unhygienic conditions and thereby causes rise
in the health problems. Other than this, co-disposal of industrial/ residential
hazardous waste with municipal waste can expose people to chemical and
radioactive hazards.<b> </b>The generation of toxic emissions may also be a key
contributor to public health risks, and should be controlled as part of the
overall municipal waste management effort.</span></div>
<ul>
<li><h4 class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Landfill gas migration</span></b></h4>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gases are extremely mobile once there is nothing to
constrain their movement from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration. Landfill gas may therefore migrate to areas in close proximity
to landfill sites, thereby creating potential health hazards such as
respiratory diseases, or even explosive conditions. Moreover, landfill gases
are a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions with related
implications for their contribution to global climate change. This issue is
developed further below.</span></div>
<ul>
<li><h4 class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Leachate generation/ Surface and ground water
pollution</span></b></h4>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Leachate is
produced when rainwater percolates with liquids created from decomposing waste
in an anaerobic environment. It has the potential to travel through the soil
layers to the water table, ultimately contaminating groundwater resources
which, in turn, contribute to land-based sources of pollution to the marine
environment. Leachate consists of aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene and toluene),
chlorinated benzenes, volatile halocarbons, phenols, and various carboxylic
acids. These contaminants may cause major public health risks to exposed populations.</span></div>
<ul>
<li><h4 class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Global waste management and climate change</span></b></h4>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The approach
to waste management around the globe also has a significant impact on global
warming and climate change. This is because a number of waste disposal methods
are themselves significant producers of greenhouse gases (GHGs) which have been
identified as the cause of global warming. While contemporary thinking on
global warming focuses on carbon dioxide (CO2) as the main offender, other GHGs
such as methane (CH4), water vapour (H2O), and nitrous oxide (N2O) are
certainly more important drivers of global warming from a waste management
point of view. It has noted that global waste production was predicted to
double over the next 20 years, driven by increased urbanization and greater
waste generation per capita in emerging economies. This overall increase in the
generation of municipal solid waste globally, along with evolving waste
management strategies, particularly in developing countries, holds the
potential to exacerbate the climate change challenge which confronts humanity
over the medium to long term.</span></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">References</span></b></h4>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Allende, R., 2009. Waste
history in the Gambia. Thesis (MSC). University of the Gambia.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kanat G, Demir A, Ozkaya B,
Bilgili MS (2006). Addressing the operational problems in a composting and
recycling plant. Waste Manage., 26: 1384-1391.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Haque A, Mujitaba IM, Bell JNB
(2000). A simple model for complex waste recycling scenarios in developing
economies. Waste Manage., 20: 625-631.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Nunan F (2000). Urban organic
waste markets: Responding to change in Hubli-Dharwad, India. Habitat Int.,
24(3): 347-360.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Schubeler, P., 1996. UNDP/UNCHS
(Habitat)/World Bank/SDC Collaborative Programme on Municipal Solid Waste
management in Low-Income Countries. Urban management and Infrastructure.
Conceptual Framework for Municipal Solid Waste Management in Low-Income
Countries. Working Paper No. 9. Available from <a href="http://science.jrank.org/pages/7297/Waste-Management.htm"><span style="color: blue;">http://science.jrank.org/pages/7297/Waste-Management.htm</span></a></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">UN-HABITAT (United Nations
Settlements Programme) (2010), “Urban Trends: Urbanization and Economic
Growth” UNHABITAT, Kenya.</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></b>
</li>
</ol>
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Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-3804451341116262622012-12-17T07:11:00.000-08:002016-10-22T06:14:05.488-07:00Municipal Solid Waste Management In Developing Countries (Part IV)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2012/12/municipal-solid-waste-management-in_17.html" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><<<readpart iii="" span=""></readpart></span></a></b></div>
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<br />
<h3>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Processes
or Stages of Municipal Solid Waste Management</span></b></h3>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlk_3wrVe5CmO7oIXYkyJNs82Y5d2C2l5pLhyphenhyphenXLKn9XjFvElbgsJ5dH9Y60V3kJ0cAe48k2bC-pQWZjvzOAUoJ0xBi87tlEaYrcIVyiKL4Ipmd4kgYNPx3z93-ekwnfLW737Fe21UjoBUo/s1600/storage.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="municipal solid waste" border="0" height="197" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlk_3wrVe5CmO7oIXYkyJNs82Y5d2C2l5pLhyphenhyphenXLKn9XjFvElbgsJ5dH9Y60V3kJ0cAe48k2bC-pQWZjvzOAUoJ0xBi87tlEaYrcIVyiKL4Ipmd4kgYNPx3z93-ekwnfLW737Fe21UjoBUo/s200/storage.png" width="200" /></a><br />
Municipal solid waste management comprises various stages from the
generation of waste to its final disposal. Planning for proper management must
consider all these stages. For a complete system of solid waste, all the stages
need to be in place:<br />
<h4>
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><i>1</i>.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">
</span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Storage System</span></i></h4>
Keeping the waste in containers is hygienic, and minimises handling and
loading times, but under some economic conditions it appears that less
satisfactory collection systems, that deposit waste on the ground and then load
it, cost less per ton. Containers can be a very significant part of the costs
of a collection system, particularly if the containers quickly become corroded
or damaged or need to be replaced frequently for other reasons. Solid waste
storage facilities for domestic wastes may be classified as household (that is,
household bins or bags, sometimes known as <b style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><i>primary </i>storage</b>)
and community (that is, containers or bunkers, each used by many households, known
as <b style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><i>secondary
</i>storage</b>).<br />
<h4>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 13.0pt;"> 2. Collection of
Municipal Solid Waste</span></i></b></h4>
The term “solid waste collection” is taken to include the initial storage of
waste at the household, shop or business premises, the loading, unloading and
transfer of waste, and all stages of transporting the waste until it reaches
its final destination disposal site (the sweeping of streets and public places,
the cleaning of open storm drains and the removal of these wastes are also
included). This destination may be a material processing facility, a transfer
station or a landfill, a treatment plant or disposal site. Collection of
generated solid waste is the crucial part in MSW management <br />
Stages of municipal solid waste collection include: collection from various
non-point sources and point sources and transportation to disposal sites.<br />
<h4>
<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">
</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Transfer System</span></i></h4>
The requirements of a vehicle for collecting wastes are very different from
the requirements for transporting the wastes that it has collected to a
transfer station, disposal site or processing plant. For collecting, the
vehicle should be small, easy to maneuver along narrow streets. For
transporting the wastes to the disposal site a large vehicle is required with a
higher-powered engine for fast travel.<br />
Conventional split level transfer stations normally have ramps which the primary
collection vehicles drive up to discharge their loads, either directly into
containers or secondary transport vehicles below or into stationary
compactors which compact the waste into hook lift containers or truck bodies.<br />
<h4>
<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">
</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Recycling and Resource Recovery and
Treatment of Solid Waste</span></i></h4>
The stages involved in <b>recycling</b> may include picking, transporting,
trading, sorting, cleaning and processing. In some cases manufacturing may also
be involved. Reuse of items for the same purpose as that for which they were
originally used (such as drink bottles) is included. To these activities is
added the <b>recovery</b> of energy from wastes for economic purposes. The term
“resource recovery” is strictly more accurate, but less well-known. The <b>treatment</b>
of solid wastes includes any processes that are implemented to reduce the costs
of transporting or disposing of wastes, and any processes that reduce the risks
posed by the wastes. There are clear overlaps with recycling.<b><i> </i></b><br />
<b><i>Composting</i></b> can be regarded as recycling when there is a market
for the product and as treatment when the purpose is to reduce the pollution
arising from the disposal stage. <b><i>Incineration</i></b><i> </i>is generally
regarded as treatment, but can be considered as a resource recovery process
when energy from the burning of the waste is put to economic use.<br />
<b>• Composting:</b> is the converting, by aerobic bacteria, of
biodegradable wastes (such as food waste) into a good soil conditioner. Another
benefit of composting is that it reduces the amount of biodegradable wastes in
the waste stream, resulting in less pollution. In general, mechanised
composting has not proved sustainable in developing countries due to the high costs
and short life of the equipment, as well as the problems of finding a market
for the compost large enough to justify a mechanised operation. However,
small-scale manual composting of selected wastes (typically market and abattoir
wastes) can be viable.<br />
Composting and anaerobic digestion uses natural microbial organisms to
decompose the organic fraction of MSW. These methods reduce the volume of waste
that must be landfilled or incinerated, and end products can potentially be
used as agricultural fertilizers, or processed into fuels for motor vehicles.
However, like incineration, project implementation can be too expensive for
poor communities. <br />
<b>• Incineration: </b>is the high-temperature combustion of wastes.
Noncombustible must be sorted out before incineration. Benefits of incineration
include reduction of volume of waste and production of energy in the form of
electricity and heat. Inadequately designed and poorly operated incinerators
can cause dangerous air pollution. Incinerators are used for municipal wastes
and for selected hazardous wastes. However, construction and start-up costs of
incineration facilities can be prohibitively expensive for developing nations.<br />
<h4>
<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">5.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">
</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Final Disposal</span></i></h4>
Final disposal is the last stage in the waste management stream. This is the
stage when all the collected waste requires a safe disposal. Despite all the
efforts to reduce, recycle and reuse the waste, there are always certain
quantities of waste requiring final disposal. At the final disposal stage we
need to deal with the larger and accumulated quantities of
waste.
<br />
The two most common methods of municipal solid waste disposal are open
dumping and sanitary landfilling. Incineration, composting and anaerobic
digestion are volume reducing technologies; ultimately, residues from these
methods must be landfilled.<b> </b><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li><b>Open or Crude Dumping: </b>waste is dumped at a designated site without
any environmental control measures. This is not a disposal option but a common
practice in developing countries. It has high environmental health risks. Waste
is unloaded wherever the driver of the collection truck finds a convenient
space. Access to parts of the site may be blocked by piles of waste,
accumulations of water or rough terrain. Usually there are many smoldering
small fires. These fires may be started by waste pickers for various reasons or
by municipal employees in an attempt to discourage fly breeding and reduce the
volume of the waste. Neighbouring householders may light fires to control the
insects and rats. Some fires may also start as the result of natural processes,
scraps of glass focusing the sun’s rays, or the depositing of burning loads.<b> </b></li>
<li><b>Sanitary Landfilling</b>: landfilling is the only true “disposal”
method of managing MSW. It is also the most economical, especially in
developing countries where it typically involves pitching refuse into a
depression or closed mining site. Landfills produce landfill gases and leachate
which can harm human and natural systems. Landfill gases (LFGs), produced when
methanogens decompose complex molecules, are primarily methane and carbon
dioxide (up to 90%), but also include CO, N2, alcohols, hydrocarbons,
organosulfur compounds, and heavy metals.</li>
</ul>
<br />
Leachate forms as water percolates intermittently through the refuse pile,
and can contain high levels of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium),
heavy metals, toxins such as cyanide, and dissolved organics. <br />
The objective of sanitary landfilling is to dispose of solid waste in a way
that causes minimum impact on the environment, and at minimum cost. In order
for the operation to be economical, the site must be well managed so that the
maximum amount of waste can be placed on the site. Sanitary landfills can be
used to fill holes below ground level or form hills higher than the surrounding
ground. Intermediate stages between crude dumping and full sanitary landfilling
are called controlled dumping or managed (or engineered) landfilling.<br />
<br />
<h3>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 20.799999237060547px;"><a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2012/12/part-iv-healthenvironmental-impact-and.html" target="_blank">Read Part V<span style="font-size: large;">>>></span></a></span></span></div>
Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-28969630623570453532012-12-17T07:02:00.000-08:002016-10-22T06:03:13.948-07:00Municipal Solid Waste Management In Developing Countries (Part III)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><<<read ii="" part="" span=""></read></span></b><span style="font-size: 13.0pt;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;">Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) In
Developing Countries</span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></h3>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIcciqSJz8KCQMwQNwTRe1dgIUDFlz5J3OIwTm2zLknpIrDxKKdGodBrlSp-UthSlczMMpDT0-LFfkx-nZmKmfXVAN-2ireUM72HNdkWxxM0jH0T362Hs9LCmejnAaF8ecm9TXfL8oxGuX/s1600/collect.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="municipal solid waste" border="0" height="248" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIcciqSJz8KCQMwQNwTRe1dgIUDFlz5J3OIwTm2zLknpIrDxKKdGodBrlSp-UthSlczMMpDT0-LFfkx-nZmKmfXVAN-2ireUM72HNdkWxxM0jH0T362Hs9LCmejnAaF8ecm9TXfL8oxGuX/s320/collect.png" width="320" /></a><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Proper management of municipal solid
waste is critical to the health and well-being of urban residents (World Bank
2003). Municipal solid waste (MSW) management is a major problem in most
developing countries. In developing countries, several tons of municipal solid
waste is left uncollected on the streets each day, clogging drains, creating
feeding ground for pests that spread disease, causing water pollution, land
contamination, environmental degradation and creating a myriad of related
health and infrastructural problems. The primary target of MSWM is to protect
the health of the population, promote environmental quality, develop
sustainability, and provide support to economic productivity. Although in
developing countries the quantity of solid waste generated in urban areas is
low compared to industrialized countries, the MSWM still remains inadequate.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Municipal Solid Waste
Management (MSWM) problems in developing countries have become more pronounced
in recent years, as a result of inadequate collection and disposal of wastes.
In most cities, wastes are not properly collected and where proper collection
is ensured, only a small fraction receives proper disposals (Ayininuola and
Muibi 2008). As such, the need to develop alternative methods of managing
municipal solid wastes (MSW) such as composting, separation, and recycling have
been used adeptly to meet these growing concerns (Haque et al., 2000; Kanat et
al., 2006; Nunan, 2000). Despite such alternative methods, however; situations
within countries vary due to different parameters which may cause certain
effects on such activities; thereby causing more difficulties or complexities
which may expand the extent to which these concerns are to be addressed.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span></div>
<h3 class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Factors Affecting Proper Municipal Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries </span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Municipal solid waste
management (MSWM) is an ‘important entry point for integrated urban management
support (Schubeler 1996)’. More specifically, it refers to that part of the
waste stream that is collected by, or on behalf of, local authorities. Factors
affecting proper municipal solid waste management processes or stages include:</span></div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Accelerated
growth of urban population with unplanned urbanization.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Increasing
economic activities and lack of training in modern solid waste management
practices in developing countries complicates the efforts to improve solid
waste services.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">The changes in
consumption patterns with alterations in the waste characteristics have also
resulted in a quantum jump in solid waste generation.<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Recent studies
has shown<b> </b>that a substantial part of the urban residents in the old city
and suburban informal settlements of developing countries have little or no
access to solid waste collection services. This is due to lack of proper land
use planning which resulted in the creation of informal settlements with narrow
streets that make it difficult for collection trucks to reach many areas. The
result is that a large portion of the population is left without access to
solid waste management making them particularly vulnerable.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">In addition, solid
waste management is hampered by a lack of data at all levels from the ward,
district and municipality, and where available, is generally unreliable,
scattered and unorganized. As a result, planning of solid waste management has
remained a difficult task.</span> </li>
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<br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"></span></b></div>
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Municipal Solid Waste varies in
composition (it may include paper, food, which may be influenced by many
factors, such as culture affluence, consumption pattern, location etc.
Municipal Solid Waste Management depends on the characteristic of the solid
waste including the gross composition, moisture contents, average particle
size, chemical composition and density, in which knowledge of these usually
helps in disposal plans, selection of the most appropriate technology for a
proper and sustainable MSWM. This has been discussed in <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2012/12/municipal-solid-waste-management-in.html" target="_blank">PART I</a> under the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">composition of municipal solid waste
generation.</b></span><span lang="EN-GB"></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
</span><br />
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<br /><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b><br /></b></span><br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com/2012/12/municipal-solid-waste-management-in_7556.html">Read Part IV>>></a></span></div>
Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-13595422691457038462012-12-11T11:06:00.002-08:002016-10-22T05:43:09.514-07:00Municipal Solid Waste Management In Developing Countries (Part II)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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</h3>
<h3>
<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;">Waste Generation Characteristics</span></h3>
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The importance of waste characteristics (both quantities and composition) on
the design and selection of waste collection equipment cannot be overestimated.
Some of the reasons why waste characteristics vary so much as observed by
United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), 2010 include:<b> </b><br />
<ul>
<li><b>Cooking and eating habits:</b> In some countries, the shops sell
mostly food that has largely been prepared, either frozen or canned. In other
countries and in smaller communities, poultry is purchased alive and vegetables
are bought with considerable extra material in addition to the part that is
consumed (maize is a good example). If fruit and vegetables are cheap and
plentiful, and are often damaged when being transported, large amounts may be
discarded. Different types of fruit and vegetables generate different amounts
of waste – compare bananas and watermelons for example.<b style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </b></li>
<li><b style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Social
and economic factors:</b> Differences in lifestyle can be big, even within one
city. This not only affects the type and amount of kitchen waste that is
generated, but also the amount of paper (because of higher literacy and the
purchase of newspapers and magazines). More affluent citizens are more likely
to discard durable items (such as used clothing and electrical equipment) as
they become obsolete, instead of repairing them.<b> </b></li>
<li><b>Recycling and reuse:</b> In some towns much of the waste is fed to
livestock and poultry. Food and drinks containers may be reused for household
purposes. Certain items may be segregated from the waste and sold. Waste
pickers may sort through wastes, taking out what they can use or sell. Such
practices can have a major influence on the waste that is put out for
collection.<b> </b></li>
<li><b>Architecture:</b> In cities where the housing is constructed
mainly of mud brick and the floors and courtyards are not paved, there are
large quantities of soil and dust in the waste. Sweeping of unpaved roads also
increases the amount of soil in the waste. The lack of adequate toilets may
increase the amount of excreta in the waste.<b> </b></li>
<li><b>Climate and geography:</b> Heavy rainfall increases the moisture
content of solid waste stored in the open. In tropical climates large amounts
of vegetation can be expected in the waste, and seasonal climates may result in
huge piles of leaves during certain times of the year. Some cities accumulate
large quantities of fine windblown soil. The climate also influences the types
and yields of crops, and therefore the food wastes generated by residents, e.g.
sugarcane waste in countries where vendors sell cane juice on the streets may
result in huge amounts of crushed cane during certain seasons.</li>
</ul>
The characteristics of municipal solid waste are also influenced by the
definition of the term. In some situations, construction and demolition debris
may be included with domestic and institutional wastes, and this inclusion can
have a significant influence on the overall weights and characteristics of the
waste that is collected.<br />
To this point, one can examine several issues related with municipal solid
waste generation<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;">Issues Related With Municipal Solid Waste,
MSW Generation</span></h3>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCJV5tiaNx_hNmSZm6v56Wbfoq0ABCvLpnoQengOn_nqNm-XNUtiYIWkjaAExo3VkQkLdqnTU9ZQwa1grYosf2IIOeWObue9FIhX3UgyrN90iUDWer1F5w6v3fFEEegDGsWsPI3GkyCh0J/s1600/municipal+waste+xter.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="display: inline; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;"><img alt="municipal solid waste management" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCJV5tiaNx_hNmSZm6v56Wbfoq0ABCvLpnoQengOn_nqNm-XNUtiYIWkjaAExo3VkQkLdqnTU9ZQwa1grYosf2IIOeWObue9FIhX3UgyrN90iUDWer1F5w6v3fFEEegDGsWsPI3GkyCh0J/s1600/municipal+waste+xter.jpg" /></a></div>
<b>a) Non-point source: </b>There are different sources which generate the
Municipal solid waste in large quantities which is difficult to manage. Any
place where human activity is involved finds solid waste. Waste is generated in
the form of vegetable remaining & food waste, used plastic bags,
plastic containers/ bottles, from residential area. During celebration of
different festivals & events, such waste is generated in significant
quantity. Due to urbanization & population growth, many construction
activities are seen in recent years resulting into creation of construction/
demolition wastes or debris. To give an example, if the external surface of a
building of 20 floors is repaired, the waste generated would be nearly 200
truckloads. One can imagine how much construction debris is generated in recent
years. Industries are one of the major sources of MSW generation, this sector
generate wastes from activities like raw material packaging, transportation,
final product packaging, indisposed defective product etc. Workers working in
such sectors also contribute to waste generation through office stationeries,
paper. Offices, Commercial Complex, Industries, Educational Institutes,
Residential complexes generate overall wastes in remarkable quantities.<br />
<b>b) Attitude: </b>People at large don’t care about waste and so never take
efforts to dispose it properly. Waste generation is mostly related with
attitude of society towards it. In developed countries people are aware about
how to minimize generation of waste. Limited population makes it simple for
them. In developing countries particularly with large population things become
difficult.<br />
<b>c) Impacts: </b>When the waste is dumped, because of its composition it
does not decompose very<b> </b>quickly, making space unavailable for other
waste. Given below are some examples to<b> </b>understand how much time it
takes for various materials to decompose.<br />
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<a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2012/12/municipal-solid-waste-management-in_17.html" target="_blank"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Read Part III>>></span></b></a></div>
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Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-89223078080017528402012-12-11T10:39:00.000-08:002016-10-22T05:13:46.688-07:00Municipal Solid Waste Management In Developing Countries (Part I)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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parts to cover the need for sustainable management of municipal solid waste in
developing countries</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;">Introduction</span></h3>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwCol4sTV0Smmu51DgbH4_E5bZDxrwrwCZp6lc7QkDlPotTkmCHNvZMxahHfxLzRj8Jou6Kjx4Cgip8l-MzE_-mVm8iCe4UvtUio59RBwcSPzkwRJON9RXcWgBdLcrn6wqwBrh0g0jn2iO/s1600/msw.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="municipal solid waste management" border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwCol4sTV0Smmu51DgbH4_E5bZDxrwrwCZp6lc7QkDlPotTkmCHNvZMxahHfxLzRj8Jou6Kjx4Cgip8l-MzE_-mVm8iCe4UvtUio59RBwcSPzkwRJON9RXcWgBdLcrn6wqwBrh0g0jn2iO/s200/msw.png" width="187" /></a><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Waste</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> was an early problem of mankind, and a growing one
that is of major concern to every nation of the world (Allende 2009). In early
pre-industrial times, waste generation was not an issue as populations were
smaller. Waste was disposed of in the ground where it would turn to compost to
improve soil fertility. Now are days, due to population growth and
urbanization, the disposal of waste has proved to be a major public health
issue and a vital factor affecting the quality of the environment. This,
especially in developing countries has become one of the most intractable
environmental problems today. Municipal Solid Waste disposal is now a
particularly worrying issue that can be likened to a ‘monster’ staring the
authorities in the face. Due to increase in population and illiteracy in
developing countries, it is difficult to manage waste generation. Most of the
manforce in the governing body is utilized in providing basic services like
water, health etc. <b>Waste management</b> particularly generation becomes
least priority issue. Unauthorized structures, small shops, construction
activities, local markets generate huge solid waste. Local bodies most of the
times does not have budgetary support to handle waste generation in better
manner. Manforce dealing with waste generation is not equipped enough. Trained,
motivated working staff always contributes better in minimizing waste
generation.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wastes</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: are substances, materials or objects discarded as
worthless or unwanted, defective, of no further value for human economic
production activities or process (Adegoke, 1990). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Solid wastes:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> are man’s unwanted materials which are non-liquid and
non-gaseous and consist of organic matter (easily biodegradable) and inorganic
(non-biodegradable which include metals, plastics, bottles and broken glasses).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Municipal Solid
Wastes (MSW):</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> include waste
from households, businesses and institutions, construction and demolition waste
in small quantities, general solid wastes from hospitals (excluding hazardous
wastes), waste from smaller industries that is not classified as hazardous, and
wastes from streets, public areas and open drains. It is not concerned with
wastes from agriculture, larger industries or the mining industries which
normally handle their own wastes. Such wastes are generated in huge quantities
in many countries, but the systems for collecting, treating and disposing of
them are separate from the systems used for municipal solid waste. They
commonly called “trash” or “garbage”, include wastes such as durable goods,
e.g., tires, furniture; nondurable goods, e.g., newspapers, plastic
plates/cups; containers and packaging, e.g., milk cartons, plastic wrap; and
other wastes, e.g.,yard waste, food.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Semisolid wastes such as
sludge and nightsoil are considered to be the responsibility of liquid waste
management systems. While hazardous industrial and medical wastes are, by
definition, not components of municipal solid waste, they are normally quite
difficult to separate from municipal solid waste, particularly when their
sources are small and scattered. Municipal solid waste management systems
should therefore include special measures for preventing hazardous materials
from entering the waste stream and -to the extent that this cannot be ensured.</span></div>
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Factors
Influencing Municipal Solid Waste Generation</span></b></div>
</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With <b>rising urbanization</b>
and change in lifestyle and food habits, the amount of municipal solid waste
has been increasing rapidly and its composition is also changing. The <b>increasing
population</b> directly influences the municipal solid waste generated in the
surrounding areas. Again <b>industrialization</b> affects level of urbanization
and increases population levels there by increasing the overall waste
generated. The rate of waste generation covers <b>community activities</b> such
as commercial, institutional, industrial and markets. It is also related to the
<b>economic level of different sectors</b> in the community such as squatters,
low, medium and high class residential area. Thus, the rate varies according to
the type of waste generators and land use.</span></div>
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Composition of
municipal solid waste generation</span></b></div>
</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Composition of municipal
solid waste provides a description of the constituents of the waste and it
differs widely from place to place. The most striking difference is the
difference in organic contents which is much higher in the low income areas
than the high income, while the paper and plastic content is much higher in
high income areas than low income areas. This reflects the difference in
consumption pattern, cultural and educational differences. In higher income
areas disposable material and packaged food are used in higher quantities; this
results in the waste having higher calorific value, lower specific density and
lower moisture content. In the case of lower income areas, the usage of fresh
vegetables to packaged food is much higher. This results in a waste composition
that has high moisture content, high specific weight and low calorific
value.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Identification of waste
composition is thus, crucial for the selection of the most appropriate
technology for treatment, taking essential health precautions and space needed
for the treatment facilities. Moreover, technology that seems to work for
developed countries may not work for developing countries since waste
composition varies from countries to countries, differences between
geographical regions, between nations, between cities and even within a city.
The list of differences between one location and another can be very long.
Despite this recognition, there has been no study on the analysis of municipal
waste composition in most developing countries. The ‘blind technology transfer’
of machinery from developed countries to developing countries and its
subsequent failure has brought attention to the need for appropriate technology
to suit the conditions in developing countries (type of waste, composition,
etc.).
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The composition may be
broadly categories in:</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></div>
<ul>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biodegradable
waste: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">food and kitchen waste, green
waste (vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits), paper (can also be recycled).</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Recyclable
material: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">paper, glass, bottles, cans,
metals, certain plastics, etc.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Inert waste: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">construction and demolition waste, dirt, rocks,
debris.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Composite
wastes: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">waste clothing, Tetra Packs,
waste plastics such as toys.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Domestic
hazardous waste (also called "household hazardous waste") &
toxic waste: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">medication,
e-waste, paints, chemicals, light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, spray cans,
fertilizer and pesticide containers, batteries, shoe polish.</span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sources of
Municipal Solid Waste</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;">
</span><br />
<ul>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Household
waste:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> is produced from daily
household consumption, and includes food waste, paper, plastic, metal and glass
containers from the packaging of domestic consumables, and used fabric from
clothing, cleaning rags, and bedding, among others. In developing countries, up
to two-third of this category consist of kitchen wastes. In poor
neighbourhoods, traditional cooking can also produce ash, and where sanitation
facilities are limited, the waste might also include faecal matter. In wealthy
countries discarded furniture, used appliances and garden wastes are included.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Commercial
waste:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> In developing
countries, markets are an important source of commercial waste, much of it
biodegradable. Other sources include shops, offices, restaurants, warehouses
and hotels.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Institutional
waste:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Solid wastes from schools,
governmental offices, hospitals, and religious buildings are included in this
category. Paper is the predominant waste from most institutional sources except
those containing residences, such as barracks and nurses’ hostels, where the
proportion of food waste is significant. Wastes from hospitals and other
healthcare establishments should be segregated into two main categories –
hazardous and general. Only the non-hazardous (general) wastes are the
responsibility of the municipal authorities.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Street
sweepings:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Street sweepings consist of
sand, stones, spilled loads and debris from traffic accidents, as well as paper
and plastic litter dropped by pedestrians and from vehicles or blown by the
wind. They may also include appreciable amounts of household refuse and human
and animal faecal matter.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Drain wastes</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: In some cities the cleaning of open storm drains and
culverts is linked to street sweeping. Silt from drains can be difficult to
dislodge and is usually wet and very dense.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bulky waste:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> This includes items that are too big to be collected by
the normal system for collecting municipal waste, and are not generated on a
regular basis. Examples are old and unwanted furniture, mattresses and
household appliances, and sometimes the carcasses of large animals.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Foliage:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Residues from gardening and pruning often have a very
low bulk density, (unless they are shredded) and so can occupy large volumes in
storage containers.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Industrial
waste:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> includes all materials
generated from industrial production processes, and may include scrap metals,
shredded wood, paper, plastics or other fabrics.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Construction
and demolition waste:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> derives from
the erection of new buildings, or the refurbishment of old structures. This
type of waste usually includes broken concrete, scrap wood and wood products,
particle board, glass, old electrical materials, tiling and related masonry,
old metal, and paints. Like industrial waste, construction and demolition waste
is increasingly being recycled, especially in more developed countries.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mining waste:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> is often bulky, and results from the removal and/or
relocation of overburden material such as soil or vegetation, in order to
access
minerals.</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Agricultural
waste:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> is material generated from
agricultural production and harvesting activities. This may include faecal
matter from livestock production, green organic matter from fruit and vegetable
production, and dried matter from the remnants of grain production and
harvests. Waste from the agricultural sector may also be produced from the
decomposition of bulk food harvests or contaminated material culled from
food-crop infestations. </span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some components of
industrial, agricultural and mining waste are together broadly classified as
hazardous waste. Household and other institutional waste, such as that
collected from public offices, schools, hospitals and business places in urban
and residential areas are classified as municipal solid waste.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
<a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2012/12/municipal-solid-waste-management-in_11.html" target="_blank"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Read Part II>>></b></a></span></div>
<br />
<br />
<h3 class="MsoNormal">
</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div>
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Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com70tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-73822731707501350892012-12-11T10:06:00.003-08:002016-10-22T04:56:19.744-07:00Soil Erosion<h3>
Introduction</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7eIPbwKqyDKqRbUsn7XYFoE8RpR5EGY7YgDsSG9Ci3FwdHGsXZM0ShYyAPB85ZQF-md9jvSWjLSNFINuD7Ea-FDd8DCjvssQPUWjG_P7CGX2NAjtxL8ULvMIndip8-bdUfrxsVVA5qQuJ/s1600/sheet.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="soil erosion" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7eIPbwKqyDKqRbUsn7XYFoE8RpR5EGY7YgDsSG9Ci3FwdHGsXZM0ShYyAPB85ZQF-md9jvSWjLSNFINuD7Ea-FDd8DCjvssQPUWjG_P7CGX2NAjtxL8ULvMIndip8-bdUfrxsVVA5qQuJ/s1600/sheet.jpg" /></a>Soil erosion is simply a systematic
removal of soil, including plant nutrients, from the land surface by the
various agents of denudation. Briefly, soil erosion can be regarded as merely a
geomorphological process, whereby the surface layer of weathering rock is
loosened and carried away by wind or running water and a lower horizon in the
soil is exposed. It
occurs in several parts of Nigeria under different geological, climatic and
soil conditions. But the degree of occurrence varies considerably from one part
of the country to the other. Thus, while it is true to observe that soil
erosion is one of the most striking features on the land surface of
Southeastern Nigeria, especially in Anambra and Imo States, only rare
occurrences of the phenomenon are recorded in some other States of the
Federation.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h3>
<b>Soil erosion as a
Natural and Global phenomenon</b><b> </b></h3>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
From this geological
perspective, erosion is just a means by which earth’s surface is shaped. As a
natural phenomenon, this process occurs in all areas, regardless of human
activities. A classical example of wind erosion in the absence of human
interference is shown in <a href="http://cseligman.com/text/planets/marswind.htm">recent photographs taken
on Mars</a>. Another example is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_(moon)">the images of Titan</a>
(Saturn’s giant moon) sent back by Huygens during its landing on January 14,
2005. The images show how river channels and deltas in Titans are carved by
methane rain</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h3>
<b>Factors that can
expose Soil to erosion (Causes of Soil erosion)</b></h3>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
We know
that except for some of the forest reserves in the country, there is hardly any
such soil under undisturbed cover. Man needs the soil for his cultivation and
has to clear the ground (bush or forest) for farming. He also burns the grass
and trees for project development due to urbanization (e.g. housing, erection
of buildings, construction of roads etc.) and man’s need to graze his animals.
Each of these activities leads to exposing the soil to the elements and,
invariably, to "accelerated" soil erosion and deterioration,
depending on the existence of other favourable conditions. These other factors
include climate, topographic disposition and lithology, especially the nature
of surface materials. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
However, <i>the factors </i>of
soil erosion in Nigeria resolve into two components: physical (geologic or
"natural") and anthropogenic (human or "accelerated").
Studies have revealed that the human component in soil erosion is often
exaggerated while the effects of the physical component are usually
underestimated. It has been notice that soil erosion in the country is a result
of the so-called "bad farming techniques".</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h4>
<b>1. Physical factors</b></h4>
<ul>
<li><b>Climate:</b>
for the humid tropics, rainfall constitutes the dominant sub-factor. High
amount and intensity rainfall, with larger size and higher velocity of
raindrops gives rise directly to splash erosion. Rainfall leads to infiltration
(amount of water entering the soil) and also leads to runoff (water sliding on
the soil into streams, river and other water bodies) which is the central agent
in the sheet erosion (unconcentrated runoff) and gully erosion (results from
concentrated runoff) provided that lithology (the general physical
characteristics of rocks in a particular area) is favourable. Exposure of the
B-horizon with lower infiltration capacity results in greater runoff for a given
rainfall intensity – thereby causing even more erosion.</li>
<li><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Nature of surface materials: </b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">influences the rate of
infiltration and rate of surface runoff. Wet, saturated soils will not be able
to absorb as much rain water, hence, reduce infiltration and increase surface
runoff, thus high erosivity for a given rainfall. The composition, moisture,
and compaction of soil are all major factors in determining the erosivity of
rainfall. Sediments containing more clay tend to be more resistant to
erosion than those with sand or silt, because the clay helps bind soil
particles together. Soil containing high levels of organic materials are often
more resistant to erosion.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span><b>Surface configuration
(relief/slope):</b>
aids runoff, sheet erosion and gullying. The general. Sheet erosion is common
over fairly uniform and gentle slopes, while Gully erosion is expected to be
more characteristic of steeper slopes. It is known, however, that gullying also
takes place on very gentle slopes and is even more common on such gentle slopes
than on very steep ones. Runoff requires such gentle slopes to be concentrated,
and concentrated runoff is a prerequisite for gullying.<o:p></o:p></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h4>
<b>2. Anthropogenic factors</b></h4>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The <i>human components </i>in soil
erosion are connected mostly with agricultural practices and other land use
activities.<o:p></o:p></div>
<ul>
<li><b>Agricultural practices:</b> Vegetation acts as an interface
between the atmosphere and the soil. It increases the permeability of
the soil to rainwater, thus decreasing runoff. It shelters the soil from winds.
In the humid tropics generally involve the destruction of vegetation by
clearing the land for cultivation and by forest fires, lack of crop rotation.
These activities cause great change in the relative proportions of infiltration
and runoff, with the dangers of erosion increasing with increased destruction
of vegetation and, thereby, reduced infiltration and increased runoff.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li><!--[if !supportLists]--><b>Land use activities:</b> surface mining, road building,
urbanisation, industrialisation and general infrastructural development appear
most important. these other land use activities help deprive the <span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">soil
surface of its vegetation and also contribute directly to sliding, slumping,
sheet and gully erosion.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">
No one could reasonably deny the
possible contributions human activities make to the development of soil
erosion, nor, could it be contended that different methods of land use and the
level of technology of land users necessarily affect the soil differently. Consequently,
the most important of the factors to explain soil erosion in Nigeria are not
human; that the main contribution of man to the inception and development of
the various forms of erosion in the country is essentially one of complicating
and accelerating an inherent problem rather than provoking it, given that the
environment is one whose physical characteristics are totally disposed to the
evolution of the worst types of erosion. However, man's role is a more recent
and easily decipherable phenomenon than that of geologic erosion, which Is why
his role readily attracts attention (Prof.
G.E.K. Ofomata)<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h3>
<b>Types of Soil Erosion</b></h3>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h4>
<b>Water Erosion</b></h4>
Raindrops can be a major problem for farmers when they
strike bare soil. With an impact of up to 30 mph, rain washes out seed and
splashes soil into the air. If the fields are on a slope the soil is splashed downhill
which causes deterioration of soil structure.<span style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><br />
<ul>
<li><b>Sheet erosion:</b> is defined as the uniform/downslope
removal of top soil in thin layers from sloping land. This, of course, is
nearly impossible; in reality the loose soil merely runs off with the rain. It
is a gradual process and it is not immediately obvious that soil is being lost.<o:p></o:p></li>
</ul>
</div>
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<br />
<ul>
<li><b> Rill erosion:</b> is the most common form of
erosion. It can occur on steep land or on land that slopes more gently. Because
there are always irregularities in a field, water finds hollows in which to
settle and low-lying channels through which to run. In other word, it occurs
when soil is removed by water from little streamlets that run through land with
poor surface draining. Although its effects can be easily removed by tillage,
it is the most often overlooked. Rills can often be found in between crop rows.</li>
</ul>
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<ul>
<li><b> Gully erosion:</b> usually occur near the bottom
of slopes and are caused by the removal of soil and soft rock as a result of
concentrated runoff that forms a deep channel or gully. They are larger than
rills and cannot be fixed by tillage. Water running downhill cuts a channel
deep into the soil and where there is a sudden fall, a gully head forms at the
lower end of the channel and gradually works its way back uphill.<o:p></o:p></li>
</ul>
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<b>Wind erosion</b><br />
<span style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: start; text-indent: 0px;">
<span style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"> Wind erosion
occurs when the land surface is left bare in regions that are arid enough, as a
result of low rainfall, to allow the soil to dry out, and flat enough to allow
the wind to carry the soil away over several consecutive days. Wind erosion is
much more severe in arid areas, and during times of drought. Land may become
susceptible to wind erosion through grazing animals, which remove the
protective plant cover, and whose hooves break up the soil, especially round
watering points. Arable land that has been left bare is also a major problem.
Wind erosion is also a major source of land degradation, evaporation,
desertification, harmful airborne dust, and crop damage—especially after being
increased far above natural rates by human activities such
as deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture</span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h4>
<b>Gravitational erosion</b></h4>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Mass movement</b>: is
the downward and outward movement of rock and sediments on a sloped surface,
mainly due to the force of gravity. Mass movement process is always
occurring continuous on all slopes and is often the first stage in the
breakdown and transport of weathered materials in mountainous areas.<sup> </sup>It
moves material from higher elevations to lower elevations where other eroding agents
such as streams and glaciers can then pick up the material and move
it to even lower elevations. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<b>Slumping:</b> happens
on steep hillsides, occurring along distinct fracture zones, often within
materials like clay that, once released, may move quite rapidly
downhill. In some cases, the slump is caused by water beneath the slope
weakening it. In many cases it is simply the result of poor engineering
along highways where it is a regular occurrence.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h3>
<b>Types of erosion in
Nigeria</b></h3>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The gully types are the more obvious forms of
erosion in the country, mainly because of the remarkable impression they leave
on the surface of the earth. They are also a visible manifestation of the
physical loss of the land due to erosion. Good examples of gullies are widespread
in Nigeria, especially in the Agulu-Nanka (Plate 1), Obioma, Nsuka, Alo, Nnobi,
Nnewi, Olu, Ozuitem, Abiriba, Ohafia, Uruala, Amucha and Uyo areas of
Southeastern Nigeria. Other examples, but on a much smaller scale, exist on the
Jos Plateau, especially in Heipang (Plate 2), around Zaria, in Ankpa and at
Auchi. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Much more pernicious
and highly detrimental to agriculture is sheet erosion which often goes on
unnoticed due to its gradual, constant and uniform action, but which finally
results in a complete removal of arable parts of the soil. Through this action
of sheet erosion, the topsoil is gradually swept clear of its finer elements
and plant nutrients, and only coarse, infertile materials are left behind. Wind erosion occurs
more generally and more frequently in the extreme northern parts of the country,
but is limited in both time and space in other parts. Some of the materials
removed by the wind reach the southern parts of the country by way of
dust-laden winds (the North Easterly Trades) especially during the period of
the harmattan. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Prof.
G.E.K. Ofomata in his work reveals that sheet erosion is the most widespread
type of erosion in the country, and that every part of Nigeria is affected by
one form of erosion or the other. Also, erosion in four States - Borno, Kaduna,
Kano and Sokoto is a result of the combined effect of wind and water action,
while the other parts of the country are affected by erosion due mainly to the
action of running water.<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h3>
<b>Effects /
Consequences of Soil Erosion</b></h3>
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b>Land degradation:</b> Water and wind
erosion are now the two primary causes of land degradation; combined, they
are responsible for 84% of degraded acreage. The loss of soil fertility due to
erosion is further problematic because the response is often to apply chemical
fertilizers, which lead to further water and soil pollution, rather than to
allow the land to regenerate. In Africa, if current trends of soil
degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its
population by 2025, according to UNU's Ghana-based Institute for Natural
Resources in Africa.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li><span class="mw-headline"><b>Sedimentation of aquatic ecosystems:</b> </span>Soil erosion
(especially from agricultural activity) is considered to be the leading global
cause of diffuse<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>water pollution,
due to the effects of the excess sediments flowing into the world's waterways.
The sediments themselves act as pollutants, as well as being carriers for other
pollutants, such as attached pesticide molecules or heavy metals. It also
reduces their food supply, and causes major respiratory issues for them as
sediment enters their gills and reduced the biodiversity of aquatic plant.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li><b>Airborne dust pollution: </b>Soil particles
picked up during wind erosion are a major source of air pollution, in the
form of airborne particulates—"dust". These airborne soil
particles are often contaminated with toxic chemicals such as pesticides or
petroleum fuels, posing ecological and public health hazards when they later
land, or are inhaled/ingested.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li><b>Desertification:</b> Soil erosion also
leads to desertification. Desertification refers to increase of desert areas. Soil erosion
results in the loss of soil fertility and makes the land barren.<o:p></o:p></li>
</ul>
<h3>
<b>Prevention and Control of Soil Erosion</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Increase
of Vegetation: </b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">when the land is
covered with vegetation, the roots of the plants and trees interlock and
interlace to bind the soil particles. This helps in two ways:</span></li>
<ul>
<li class="MsoNormal">does not allow the soil particles to be
carried away by wind or water<o:p></o:p></li>
<br />
<li class="MsoNormal">does not allow free flow of water over
the soil which prevent erosion of soil by flowing water<o:p></o:p></li>
<br />
<li class="MsoNormal">the falling leaves of the plants get
converted to humus by decomposing action of the soil microbes. This
enriches the soil.<o:p></o:p></li>
</ul>
<li><!--[if !supportLists]--><b>Crop
Rotation: </b>the practice of growing
different crops at different times on the same land is called crop rotation.
This keeps the topsoil covered with vegetation. Rotation of cereal crops with
legumes also keeps the soil enriched with nitrogen (from the legumes).<o:p></o:p></li>
<li><!--[if !supportLists]--><b>Reforestation:</b> slopes are more subject to soil erosion by
running water. Growing trees on lands which have lost their vegetation is
called reforestation. Trees like Albizia, Cassia, Butia, etc. are suitable for
this.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li><!--[if !supportLists]--><b>Strip
Croping: </b>it involves growing of
crops in strips. The most common method followed is the contour farming where
the strips of crop are at right angles to the slope. Wind-strip cropping is
when the strips of crop are place at right angles to the direction of wind.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b>Restoring Soil Fertility:</b> fertile
soil supports vegetation. Loss of fertility results in loss of vegetation and
this exposes the land to erosion. Fertility of soil can be increased by
addition of natural and synthetic fertilizers.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b>Control of Grazing:</b> covering the land with small plants and grasses helps the
topsoil to remain in place as the roots of these plants bind with the soil
particles. Cattle graze on these plants and expose the topsoil Thus, grazing
should be allowed only on the land meant for the purpose and other areas should
be protected from grazing.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li><!--[if !supportLists]--><b>Terracing:</b> fields
are cut at right angles to the slope. This slows down the flowing water and
allows it to irrigate the crops, as well.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li><!--[endif]--><b>Dam Building</b><b>:</b> with the dams the speed and
amount of water flowing can be controlled. This will control the soil erosion
of the river banks.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li><!--[if !supportLists]--><b>Wind Breakers:</b> trees
are planted across the wind direction to protect against the high velocity
winds. These rows of trees are called shelter belts or wind breakers.<o:p></o:p></li>
</ul>
</div>
Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com17tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-787040004594655892012-12-09T07:26:00.001-08:002016-10-22T04:38:34.057-07:00Flooding<!--[if !mso]>
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<h3>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 13.0pt;">Introduction</span></b></h3>
<b>Floods</b> occur when a drainage basin (or watershed) receives so much
water that stream and river channels cannot handle the flow. As a result it
overflows into areas with human settlements, infrastructure facilities and
economic activities. Floods become a disaster when such areas become exposed to
the hazard without adequate warning and/or without means of taking defensive
actions. Thus, the community suffers loss of life, assets, livelihood, and
environmental security.
<br />
It has been noted that climate change affect flooding. As a result of global
warming, the type, frequency and intensity of extreme events, such as tropical
cyclones (including hurricanes and typhoons), floods, droughts and heavy
precipitation events, are expected to rise even with relatively small average
temperature increases. Changes in some types of extreme events have already
been observed, for example, increases in the frequency and intensity of heat
waves and heavy precipitation events. Flooding affects more people on an annual
basis than any other form of natural disaster. A variety of climatic and
non-climatic processes influence flood processes, resulting in river floods,
flash floods, urban floods, sewer floods, glacial lake outburst floods and
coastal floods. These flood-producing processes include intense and /or long-lasting
precipitation, snow melt, dam break, reduced conveyance due to jams or
land-slides or by storm.<br />
<h3>
<span style="color: black; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">Causes of
flooding</span></h3>
<h4>
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-themecolor: text1;">Meteorological Cause:</span></h4>
Most flood damages are the result of extreme, intense and long duration
floods caused by meteorological phenomena such as:<br />
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Prolonged and intense rainfall</div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Cyclones</div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Typhoons, storms and tidal surges</div>
<h4>
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-themecolor: text1;">Hydrological Cause:</span></h4>
<h4>
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-themecolor: text1;">Flooding can also be caused by increased run off due to:</span></h4>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Ice and snow melt</div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Impermeable surfaces</div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Saturated land</div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Poor infiltration rates</div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Land erosion</div>
<h4>
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-themecolor: text1;">Anthropogenic Cause:</span></h4>
Mankind plays a very important role in the magnitude and
frequency of floods in many different ways.
Actually, it is the human activities in water catchments, which drastically
intensify floods. In this
connection, human actions associated with land use change are the most
important.<br />
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Population growth.</div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Land use change, deforestation, intensive
agriculture, over grazing, unplanned flood control measures</div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Socio economic and development activities</div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Urbanization</div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Climate change</div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Global warming</div>
<h3>
<span style="color: black; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">Human
Influences on Flooding</span></h3>
Human activities along waterways can increase flooding inadvertently. Paving
and building on floodplains and surrounding areas decrease infiltration of
rainwater into the soil and, as a consequence, increase runoff. <br />
Runoff also increases when forests are cleared or when wetlands are
destroyed by construction or infilling. Agriculture decreases the ability of
soil to retain water and therefore increases runoff. Rapid runoff causes soil
erosion. Sediment-clogged streams cannot support normal levels of aquatic life,
and wildlife habitats are destroyed. Sediment deposition in stream channels
also leaves little room for water and leads to the likelihood of flooding.<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;">Types of Flooding</span></h3>
<div style="text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 7.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><b>According to Duration: </b>Slow-Onset
Flooding, Rapid-Onset Flooding, Flash Flooding. </div>
<div style="text-indent: -.25in;">
<b>According to Location: </b>Coastal
Flooding, Arroyos Flooding, River Flooding and Urban Flooding.
</div>
<div style="text-indent: -.25in;">
The urban area is paved with
roads etc. and the discharge of heavy rain can't absorbed into the ground due
to drainage constraints leads to flooding of streets, underpasses, low lying
areas and storm drains. </div>
<h4>
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1;">River flooding: </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">occurs when heavy rainfall or spring thaws (melting
snow and ice) increase water levels in a drainage basin, or sometimes by both.
River floods normally build up slowly. These floods are often seasonal and may
continue for days and weeks.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-themecolor: text1;"></span></h4>
Riverine floods also deposit rich fertile sediments that enrich the
nutrients lost through the intensive agricultural practices of deltaic farmers
downstream. This natural action provides livelihood security for farmers and
food security for the people. The surrounding watershed ecosystem also depends
on flooding to enable the development of life.<br />
There are two types of river flooding:<br />
<ul>
<li><b>Slow onset Flood: </b>Occurs slowly and can
last weeks or even months. Causes may consist of snowmelt or steady ongoing
rainfall. Rising flood levels can be forecasted giving people the opportunity
to evacuate the areas at risk. There are often extensive damages and losses.<b> </b></li>
<li><b>Rapid onset Flood: </b>Occurs mainly in steep
rivers with small and steep mountainous catchments after periods of intense
rainfall. These floods are accompanied by a rapid rise and fall in water
levels. The sudden onrush of water from mountains and high flow velocity causes
intense damages to crops and property and greater direct loss of life than slow
onset floods.
</li>
</ul>
<h4>
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1;">Flash floods: </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-themecolor: text1;">are associated with intense
rainstorms that release large amounts of rain into small drainage basins in a
relatively short period of time. Flash floods occur with little or no warning
and can reach peak levels within minutes, carrying a deadly cargo of rocks,
trees, and other debris. Floodwater collects in particular areas and may remain
for a long duration of time. Flash floods are potential threats particularly
where the terrain is steep, surface runoff is high, water flows through narrow
canyons and where severe rain storms are likely.</span></h4>
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Coastal floods:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">occur
when onshore winds and hurricanes cause the sea level to rise over low-lying
coastal areas. If this happen during high tide, leading to a tidal surge, the
devastation can be catastrophic. Sometimes during hurricanes coastal areas are
affected simultaneously by storm surges and river floods. Coastal flooding can
also occur as a result of a tsunami or seismic sea wave following an earthquake</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span>
<h3>
<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;">Importance of Floodplains</span></h3>
Most streams are naturally bordered by flat, low-lying areas known as
floodplains. Floodplains have been carved into the landscape by stream erosion
and are covered in fine-grained sand, silt, and clay deposited by floodwaters.<br />
<ul>
<li><b>Agriculture</b>: people are attracted to
floodplains because floods deposit nutrient-rich topsoil, eroded from upstream,
producing fertile land for agriculture. In Egypt, for example, floods and
deposition of nutrient-rich sediment from the Nile River have increased
agricultural yields for perhaps five thousand years. Floodplains tend to be
flat, making them easy to cultivate, and near water, making them easy to
irrigate. In addition, the nearby source of water is useful for transportation
of agricultural products.<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>It is beneficial to streams</b>: It
serves to maintain both local and regional environmental balance, affecting
water quality and aquatic life. Floods also recharge groundwater supplies.
Ironically, the same river or stream that provides sustenance to the
surrounding population also renders these populations vulnerable to disaster by
periodic flooding.
</li>
</ul>
<h3>
<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;">Effect of Flooding</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;"></span>Floods can be considered human-caused disasters in that people build on
floodplains, refusing to consider the risk. Dangers of flooding include:<br />
<ul>
<li>Losses of human from drowning and heart attack.
Also victim may suffer injuries;<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Landslides are a major threat each year to human
settlements and infrastructure, and cause more property loss. Landslide occurs
as a result of changes in water contents, removal of lateral support by erosion
and rise in ground water levels.<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Structural damage to bridges, buildings,
roadbeds, sewer system, roads, railway lines, canal, dams, and utilities;<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Agricultural losses: food shortage may lead to
price increase;</li>
<li>Severe soil erosion and land degradation: soil
erosion removes valuable top soil which is the most productive part of the soil
profile. This results in lower yields and higher costs of production;<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"></span></span></span>Property destruction;</li>
<li>Indirect health effect as a result from Epidemic
Diseases, <i>Poisoning, Post-traumatic stress disorder, </i>Unhygienic conditions;<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Flooding may shut roads, and affect traffic in
and out of a region;</li>
<li>Schools and other public institution may close
due to the problem;</li>
<li>Water pollution: Clean drinking water becomes
scarce. (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, groundwater). Water pollution affects
plants and organisms living in these bodies of water;<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Land value: houses located within a floodplain
have lower market value than an equivalent house located outside the floodplain;</li>
<li>Loss of resources - Impact on capital stock and machineries.
</li>
</ul>
When water filtration facilities are inundated, floods spread waters
polluted by industrial contaminants and human waste. Polluted floodwater can
also contaminate wells and water supplies. Wild animals, including poisonous
snakes, often come into homes with rising floodwater. Disease spread by
waterborne pathogens and insects such as mosquitoes, in addition to famine due
to crop damage and loss of food supplies, can cause great loss of life.
Additional long-term problems include homelessness and losses to commerce,
employment, and education.<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: 13.0pt;">Flood Control</span></h3>
Floods can be controlled in two ways: by controlling the waters or by
controlling floodplain development. To minimize the effects of flooding,
engineers build dams, levees, and floodwalls along rivers. Dams can store water
during periods of heavy runoff and release it gradually during periods of low
flow. Artificial levees and floodwalls are built along streams to confine
floodwaters and to keep them from covering the floodplains. <span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span>Artificial levees must be heightened
because of rising water levels over time.<br />
Other methods of flood control include restoring vegetation, instituting
soil conservation measures, constructing floodways to divert floodwaters,
widening rivers to accommodate more water, and purposely flooding certain areas
to prevent flooding in others.<br />
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<h3 class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Introduction </span></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2z18G_J2DgtZ36I6o65qTpCnC-X6r9269OxVst8icSbALhe4tcfEAqGN7j9E-aIFio5OoBx8Y8MultyEDruWlFP5DD6xiXTAJI86vX92wEb-XcRyaWtrD62Ij1DzjG0C4HgftFx2Zu1pt/s1600/nigeria.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2z18G_J2DgtZ36I6o65qTpCnC-X6r9269OxVst8icSbALhe4tcfEAqGN7j9E-aIFio5OoBx8Y8MultyEDruWlFP5DD6xiXTAJI86vX92wEb-XcRyaWtrD62Ij1DzjG0C4HgftFx2Zu1pt/s1600/nigeria.jpg" /></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">From time
immemorial through the period of agriculture to the period of industrial
development, <b><a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2014/09/legal-concept-of-land.html"><span style="color: blue;">land</span></a></b> has remained the most valuable property
in the life of man and his development. It is a source of wealth to those who
have it and the mother of all properties. In other words, virtually all the
basic needs of human existence are land dependent. In view of the importance
and usefulness of land to man and his development as well as the development of
his society, every person generally desires to acquire and own a portion of
land to achieve the various ends for which the land is meant. Therefore, to
make land in Nigeria available to all and to ensure that land is acquired and
put to a proper use for the needed development, governments during and after
colonial period enacted laws to govern the use or administration of land in
Nigeria. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Prior to the
enactment of the <b>Land Use Act in 1978</b>, there were three main sources of
land law: Customary Law (varied from custom to custom), English received law
(which comprises of the common law, doctrine of equity and statutes of General
application), and local legislation. There was also a duality of Land Use
System in the southern and northern parts of the country.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Parliament of the then northern Nigeria passed the Land Tenure Law in 1962,
which governed all interest affecting land. The Land Tenure law vested all land
in the governor who was to hold land in trust for the people and only <b>rights
of occupancy </b>(not rights of ownership) could be granted to other
people. The consent of the governor was required before any alienation of
interest in land could take place.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In the then
Southern Nigeria, however, customary system of land tenure governed land
interest and land was owned by communities, families and individuals <b>in
freehold</b>. Land was acquired either by inheritance, first settlement,
conveyance, gift, outright purchase or long possession. There were also crown
lands, which were acquired by the British Crown by virtue of treaty, cession,
convention or agreement. When Nigeria attained independence, such crown land
became known as state
land. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Notwithstanding
the existence of laws regulating land, the problems of land tenure and land
administration persisted both in the Northern and Southern Nigeria. There were
new problems such as land racketeering and speculations. Exorbitant
compensations were demanded by landowners whenever the government acquired land
for development. Thus, acquisition of land by government or individuals was
becoming almost impossible in Nigeria.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In fact, one
of the major factors that was said to be a stumbling block against efficient
implementation of the Second Development Plan 1975-1980, was lack of land for
development project. To break this barrier and monopolies of landlords, the
Federal Military Government set up some panels to consider how best to solve
the problems associated with land tenure and administration in Nigeria. The
report of one of these panels i.e., the Land Use Panel of 1977 eventually
formed the basis of the Land Use Act No. 6 of 1978.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The purpose
of this essay is to show the relevance of the Land Use Act to Land-use planning
in Nigeria.</span></div>
<h3 class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Summary the Land Use Act of 1978</span></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Land Use Decree (now Land Use Act) was promulgated
on 29<sup>th</sup> of March 1978 following the recommendations of a
minority report of a panel appointed by the Federal Military Government of the
time to advise on future land policy. With immediate effect, it vested all land
in each state of the Federation in the governor of that state (Fed. Rep. of
Nigeria, 1978).</span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Act
vests all land comprised in the territory of each state (except land vested in
the Federal Government for its agencies) solely in the hands of the military
governors of the state who would hold such land in trust for the people.
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
promulgation of this Act was as a result of two main factors:
</span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Firstly, was the diversity of
customary laws on land tenure and difficulty in applying the various
customs of the different people. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The second factor was the
rampant practice in southern Nigeria with regards to fraudulent sales of
land. The same land would be sold to different persons at the same time
giving rise to so many litigations.
</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Act
distinguishes throughout between urban and non-urban (rural) land. </span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In urban areas (to be so
designated by the Governor of a state), land was to come under the control
and management of the Governor. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In rural areas it was to fall
under the appropriate local government.
</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">“Land Use and Allocation
Committees”</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">,
appointed for each state by the Governor, were to advise on the
administration of land in urban areas. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">“Land Allocation Advisory
Committees”</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> were
to exercise equivalent functions with regard to rural land.
</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Act
envisaged that <b>“rights of occupancy”</b>, which would appear to replace
all previous system or rules of inheritance to land, would form the basis upon
which land was to be held. These rights were of two kinds: statutory and
customary. </span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">“Statutory rights of occupancy”</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> were to be granted by the
Governor and related principally to urban areas. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">“Customary right of occupancy”</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, according to the Act, means
the right of a person or community lawfully using or occupying land in
accordance with customary law and includes a customary right of occupancy
granted by Local Government under this Act.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Local
governments were empowered to grant customary rights of occupancy to any person
or organisation for agricultural, residential and other purposes with the
proviso that grants of land for agricultural or grazing purposes should not
exceed 500 or 5000 hectares respectively without the consent of the State
Governor. With the minor exception of land subject to Federal or State claims,
the Act also empowered the local government to enter upon, use and occupy for
public purposes any land within the area of its jurisdiction and to revoke any
customary right of occupancy on any such land. The approval of the local
government was to be required for the holder of a customary right of occupancy
to alienate that right.
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Act
prohibits the alienation by assignment, mortgage, transfer or possession,
sub-lease or otherwise, of customary right of occupancy without the consent of
either the Governor or the Local Government as the case may be. It also
prohibits the alienation of statutory right of occupancy without the due
consent of the Governor (Land Use Act, 1978: section 21 subsections a and b).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Governors
were empowered to revoke rights of occupancy for reasons of “overriding public
interest.” Such reasons included alienation by an occupier without requisite
consent or approval; a breach of the conditions governing occupancy; or the
requirement of the land by Federal, State, or local government for public
purposes. Only in the last of these cases would any compensation be due to the
holder, and then only for the value of unexhausted improvements on the land and
not for the land itself.</span></div>
<h3 class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There are
four main objectives derivable from the act and these are:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></h3>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">to effect structural change in
the system of land tenure;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">to achieve fast economic and
social transformation;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">to negate economic inequality
caused by the appropriation of rising land values by land speculators and
land holders; and</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">to make land available easily
and cheaply, to both the government and private individual developers.</span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div>
<br />
<br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
</div>
</div>
Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com33tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2009171628805199938.post-32368468048096587012012-11-26T04:47:00.001-08:002016-10-22T03:56:57.999-07:00Significance of Land use Act of 1978 to Land use Planning in Nigeria<h3>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Introduction. </span></h3>
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdtgheMaZIMs7Yl7x87h_KMtOJVwYvw6wcbsdA2nZM4L2TKcv9iDPbVjj_laWc_djrr1wPL5v_9p9g_heSqrr3G6c38LQLT0LzCpqI8_foVC1ocsdpHaJK8I75HRaJknLXGIkChkD436oz/s1600/landuse.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Nigeria Land Use Act" border="0" height="123" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdtgheMaZIMs7Yl7x87h_KMtOJVwYvw6wcbsdA2nZM4L2TKcv9iDPbVjj_laWc_djrr1wPL5v_9p9g_heSqrr3G6c38LQLT0LzCpqI8_foVC1ocsdpHaJK8I75HRaJknLXGIkChkD436oz/s200/landuse.jpg" width="200" /></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Land use
regulations and controls are used to restrict the rights of private land
holders in the use of land. The regulations are used to protect public interest
in the use of private <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com.ng/2014/09/legal-concept-of-land.html"><span style="color: blue;">land</span></a>. The regulations stem from the need to
provide public amenities, to increase the efficiency of land-use, to limit
urban sprawl and unnecessary encroachment on agricultural land, and to achieve
economies of scale and least-cost production of public services (Courtney,
1983:153). The regulations are also used to ensure the availability of
land to all groups, and to ensure that the benefits of development go to the
community as a whole.</span>
<br />
<br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There are
numerous ways through which land use is controlled and regulated.
Land-use planning is used in the allocation of space for different purposes in
a local, regional, or national setting. Zoning regulations are used to specify
permitted land-uses, and to define norms (such as bulk, height, shape, etc.)
for the different land-use categories. Subdivision regulations are used to
govern the parceling of land for development. The regulations "prescribe
standards for lot sizes and lay-out street improvements, procedures for
dedicating private land for public purposes, and other requirements in far more
detail than in the zoning plan" (Courtney, 1983:160). Building regulations
are used to limit or define the way structures may be built or altered. They
specify standards relating to materials of construction, and the assembly of
buildings. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Land use planning in Nigeria. </span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Land is
required for various uses in both the urban and rural areas of all society. It
is a major factor of production and a vital element in the socio-economic
development of any country or society (FMH&UD, 2003). Thus, as the
nation grew in size and rural areas become urban centers and urban centers
become large metropolitan areas, there is always increased competition as well
as demand for land for different purposes. This requires adequate planning and
control to ensure harmonious development and functional efficiency of these
uses and settlements. According to Aluko (2000), the forms and patterns of
distribution of structures in general to promote the good health,
accessibility, convenience and harmonious land use in environment are a
function, to a considerable extent, of the rights and methods of dealing with
land. To achieve this fundamental and acceptable activity, layouts of various land
uses such as residential, commercial, industrial, open spaces and recreation,
circulation and institutional uses among others are undertaken to standardize
and control physical developments and ensure harmonious growth. To ensure
adequate provision of these uses and meet the needs of users of urban
facilities and services land allocation and space standards are specified.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Land-use
planning is the term used for a branch of public
policy encompassing various disciplines which seek to order and
regulate land-use in an efficient and ethical way, thus
preventing land-use conflicts. Governments use land-use planning to manage
the development of land within their jurisdictions. In doing so, the
governmental unit can plan for the needs of the community while safeguarding
natural resources.To this end, land use planning is the systematic assessment
of land and water potential, alternatives for land use, and economic and social
conditions in order to select and adopt the best land-use options. Often
one element of a comprehensive plan, a land-use plan provides a vision for
the future possibilities of development in neighborhoods, districts, cities, or
any defined planning area.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Thus,
effective urban land control and management particularly in areas with rapid
urban sprawl such as Nigeria is crucial to tackling growing land use problems
such as slum formation, rising costs of land, accessibility to urban land for
land housing, incompatible use, flooding, overcrowding and congestion among
others for the purpose of achieving sustainable city development and ensure the
safety and health of the people. Thus, in Nigeria, great attention has been
paid by researchers, professionals and decision makers to the urban land-use
planning and management problems and the design of policies to combat it. In
Nigeria, a number of policies that impinge on urban land management has been
articulated and implemented. These include the Land use Act of 1978, urban
Development Policy of 1992, Urban and Regional Planning Act 1992.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Land-use
planning often leads to land-use regulations, also known as zoning, but
they are not one and the same. As a tool for implementing land-use plans,
zoning regulates the types of activities that can be accommodated on a given
piece of land, the amount of space devoted to those activities and the ways
that buildings may be placed and shaped.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Significance
of the <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com/2012/11/summary-of-land-use-act-decree-no-6-of.html"><span style="color: blue;">Land Use Act of 1978</span></a> to Land-use Planning in
Nigeria.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Generally, before the <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com/2012/11/summary-of-land-use-act-decree-no-6-of.html"><b><span style="color: blue;">Act</span></b></a>, Nigeria land tenure systems emphasized
landholding and commercialization of land as opposed to putting the land into
effective use. The concept of ownership under the systems did not go with the
duty to develop such lands. As such they encouraged the growth of a horde of
land speculators who bought lands, held them for as long as they liked until
the value had appreciated sufficiently before disposing such lands.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A critical look at the provisions of the Act reveals
that some physical planning terminologies are stated in the Act. Example of
these are: Land Use, Urban areas, Resettlement of person affected by the
revocation of rights of occupancy, Developed land, Undeveloped land, Erection
of any building, wall fence or other structures upon any land, Contravention.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The land-use planning in Nigeria is enforced through
the use of permits and approvals by public agencies and institutions. The Land
Use Act provides that Land Allocation Committees would be created which would
dispense the land through the granting of Certificates of Occupancy. With the
land use act, individual ownership was disallowed, and the state governor
replaced the chief, family head or emir as the controlling force behind the
land.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Under the Act, some areas in the state are declared as
urban areas where any person is to have the right of occupancy of not more than
half hectare (1.2 acres) of undeveloped land that can be used for all purposes.
The Act recognises the establishment of both State and Local Government Land Allocation
Committees. In non-urban areas, the Governor has the power to grant a right of
occupancy to a person on ‘400 hectares’ (988 acres) of land prospecting for
building materials like stones, gravels. The Local Government has the power to
use up to ‘500 hectare’ (1,235 acres) for ‘agricultural purposes’, and up to
‘5000 hectare’ (12.355 acres) for ‘grazing purposes.’ If any Local Government
wants to grant more than the above to any person, etc., it must obtain the
Governor’s consent before doing so.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">No person or group of person has the power to
sub-divide or layout any land above half hectare (1.2 acres) in any urban area,
and transfer any plot therein to any person without the consent of the
Governor. That is, no person or family or company, etc., can lay out any land
more than half hectare in any urban area and submit same to the Governor for
approval as was being done before the promulgation of the Land Use Act in 1978.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> “Contravention,” in the realm of Town Planning,
means an illegal or unauthorized development having no approved building plan.
That is, any structure erected anywhere above or underneath the ground without
any approval is a contravention. This is frowned at by the Act in section 43.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The <a href="http://nigeriaenvironment.blogspot.com/2012/11/summary-of-land-use-act-decree-no-6-of.html"><span style="color: blue;">Land Use Act</span></a> is significant to land-use planning
because:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></h3>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Act
controls the manner in which land is used.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Land
acquire by government would be made easier for urban expansion: so that
ethnicity would be less of a factor in land ownership in urban areas as
indigenous groups often controlled land in the older urban areas; to
encourage the nonindigenous population have access to land, and to curtail
land speculation by limiting the amount of land owned by individuals.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
legal status of the Nigerian land user becomes that of statutory
occupancy, not one of ownership and the economic interests and benefits of
'statutory rights of occupancy are severely limited by law since
proprietary interests in land are lost and claims are restricted to
improvements made on the land. Thus, subdivision regulations, height and
building limit, etc., are included in the Certificate of Occupancy
granted, to control development of project in certain area for aesthetic
and convenience of the economy. In other word, The Act enable the
Government to bring under control the use to which land can be put in all
parts of the country and thus facilitates planning and zoning programme
for particular use.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Act
empowers the Governor to revoke rights of occupancy for reasons of
overriding public interest: such as alienation of the land by the occupier
without due approval, requirement of the land by Federal, State or Local
Government for public purposes. In such cases, compensation may be paid
but only for 'unexhausted improvements' on land and not for the land
itself since with the Act, land no longer has an economic value. Prior to
the introduction of the Act, exorbitant compensations were demanded by
landowners whenever the government acquired land for project execution.
Thus, acquisition of land by government or individuals was becoming almost
impossible in Nigeria.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The act
sought to break up large land holdings, and hence facilitate the transfer
of land for housing development and to encourage rehabilitation of older
indigenous areas in prime commercial locations in city centers.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">By the
state ownership and control of land, and by the trusteeship arrangement,
speculations in land which largely accounted for astronomical rise in the
value of land especially in urban areas were done away with. Speculators
now found alternative outlets for their capital and entrepreneurial
ability and this has contributed to the stabilization of land value. Such stabilization
has in turn contributed to the stabilization of the cost of government
projects especially in urban areas of the country.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Since
all the undeveloped land in every state has been vested in the Governor,
the physical planner can plan vacant land and zone any part thereof for
any use including public open space.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Land Use Act enables the Town planner to plan in such a manner that
different land uses are juxtaposed in the most harmonious and beneficial
relationship for the good of the people in an area or in a state. This is
because the end product of scientific planning is the optimum use of land
in any area for the good of the people in the affected area at any given
time frame.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Act
imposed obligations on the right holder to utilize his land and the
consequence of breach of these obligations. The strongest argument for the
introduction of rights of occupancy was the process of facilitating
planned development as an aspect of land tenure. While at common law, the
freehold system is characterized by discretion in the owner to use or
neglect the use of his land expressed as the concept guaranteed, the right
of occupancy is characterized by the adoption of the principle that
security of tenure depends on land utilization.</span></li>
</ol>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In conclusion, Land Use Act has secured for every
Nigerian a piece of land for his use within his financial means. There have
also been reductions in the incidence of land disputes. The Act has regulate
the manner and type of developments on the schemes in other to ensure that
lands are used and developed in the best planning principles. Of course, the
foregoing is among the overall objectives the policy the Act intended to
achieve.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">References</span></b></h3>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Afolabi
A. (2008). Improving Urban Land Use Planning and Management In Nigeria:
The Case Of Akure. Theoretical and Empirical Researches in Urban
Management, Year 3, Number 9.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Aluko, O. E. (2000):
“Development Control in Nigeria’s New Civil Rule Programme”. Journal of
the Nigerian Institute of Town Planners (JNITP) 13, 78 – 88.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Federal Ministry of Housing and
Urban Development (FMH&UD), (2003). Sustainable Human Settlements
Development: National Urban Strategies. Petral Digital Press, Abuja.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sadiq E.R. (2011): The Land Use
Act Of 1978: Appraisal, Problems and Prospects</span></li>
</ul>
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Bolaji Osenihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11159327872586219250noreply@blogger.com10